The neuropeptide NAP provides neuroprotection against retinal ganglion cell damage after retinal ischemia and optic nerve crush

Background  NAP, an 8-amino acid peptide (NAPVSIPQ=Asn-Ala-Pro-Val-Ser-Ile-Pro-Gln) derived from activity-dependent neuroprotective protein (ADNP), plays an important role in neuronal differentiation and the survival of neurons in different pathological situations. We already discovered that NAP increases the survival of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) in vitro, and supports neurite outgrowth in retinal explants at femtomolar concentrations. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of NAP on RGC survival after transient retinal ischemia and optic nerve crush. Methods  RGC of male Wistar rats were labelled retrogradely with 6 l FluoroGold injected stereotactically into both superior colliculi. Seven days later, retinal ischemia was induced by elevating the intraocular pressure to 120 mm Hg for 60 minutes or by crushing one optic nerve for 10 s after a partial orbitotomy. NAP was either injected intraperitoneally in the concentration of 100 mg/kg 1 day before, directly after, and on the first and the second days after damage, or intravitreally (0.05 or 0.5 μg/eye) directly after the optic nerve crush. Controls received the same concentrations of a control peptide. Densities of surviving RGC and activated microglial cells (AMC) were quantified in a masked fashion 10 days after damage by counting FluoroGold-labelled cells. Results  After retinal ischemia, intraperitoneal injections of NAP increased the number of surviving RGC by 40% (p < 0.005) compared to the control group. After optic nerve crush, NAP raised the number of surviving RGC by 31% (p = 0.07) when injected intraperitoneally and by 54% (p < 0.05) when administered intravitreally. Conclusions  NAP acts neuroprotectively in vivo after retinal ischemia and optic nerve crush, and may have potential in treating optic nerve diseases. Supported by the Ernst und Berta Grimmke Stiftung, Germany. IG is the incumbent of the Lily and Avraham Gildor Chair for the Investigation of Growth Factors and the Director of the Adams Super Center for Brain Research at Tel Aviv University and is the Chief Scientific Officer of Allon Therapeutics Inc., Vancouver, Canada. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Neuroprotective effects of tempol acyl esters against retinal ganglion cell death in a rat partial optic nerve crush model

Purpose: The aim of this study is to search for more effective derivatives of the superoxide dismutase mimetic tempol (4‐hydroxy‐2,2,6,6‐tetramethylpiperidine‐1‐oxyl). Although tempol is neuroprotective in a rat partial optic nerve crush (PONC) model, relatively high doses are required to exert this effect. Methods: Tempol acyl esters with different‐length fatty acids (tempol‐C4, tempol‐C8, tempol‐C12 and tempol‐C16) were synthesized and the following properties were evaluated: water‐octanol partition coefficient, liposome‐liposome energy transfer, and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Brown Norway rats underwent PONC and received tempol or acyl esters intraperitoneally once daily for 7 consecutive days. We then compared the effects of tempol and its four esters on retinal ganglion cell (RGC) damage using a retrograde labelling method. Results: The water‐octanol partition coefficient increased with increasing length of attached acyl chain. However, the energy of the liposome–liposome transfer seemed to be optimal for tempol‐C8 and tempol‐C12. The EPR signal was very similar for all tested compounds, suggesting similar efficiency of superoxide scavenging. Partial optic nerve crush in vehicle‐treated animals reduced RGC numbers by approx. 59% when compared with sham‐operated eyes. Tempol did not affect RGC loss at a dose of 1 mg/kg. In contrast, at molar doses equivalent to 1 mg/kg of tempol, tempol‐C8 showed a significant neuroprotective effect, whereas tempol‐C4, tempol‐C12 and tempol‐C16 did not act neuroprotectively. Conclusion: Manipulating the hydrophobicity of tempol seems to be a promising tool for developing more potent neuroprotectants in the PONC degeneration model. However, the resulting compounds need further pharmacological evaluation.     

The effect of ginkgo biloba on the rat retinal ganglion cell survival in the optic nerve crush model

Purpose: To investigate the effect of ginkgo biloba on the retinal ganglion cell survival in a rat optic nerve crush model. Methods: Twenty‐four Sprague–Dawley rats were divided randomly into a study group of 12 animals receiving intraperitoneal injections of ginkgo biloba and a control group of 12 animals receiving intraperitoneal saline injections. All injections were performed 1 hr before the optic nerve crush and daily afterwards. For each animal, the right optic nerve was crushed closely behind the globe for 60 seconds using a microclip with 40 g power. The left optic nerve was kept intact. At 23 days after the optic nerve crush, the retinal ganglion cells were labelled retrogradely by injecting 3% fluorogold into both sides of the superior colliculus of the brain. At 4 weeks after the optic nerve crush, the animals were killed. Photographs taken from retinal flat mounts were assessed for the number and density of the retinal ganglion cells. Results: The survival rate, defined as the ratio of the retinal ganglion cell density in the right eye with the optic nerve crush divided by the retinal ganglion cell density in left eye without an optic nerve trauma, was significantly (p = 0.035) higher in the study group with ginkgo biloba than in the control group (60.0 ± 6.0% versus 53.5 ± 8.0%). Conclusion: The results suggest that intraperitoneal injections of a ginkgo biloba extract given prior to and daily after an experimental and standardized optic nerve crush in rats were associated with a higher survival rate of retinal ganglion cells.     

小干扰RNA保护大鼠视网膜神经节细胞的实验研究

 目的 通过大鼠视神经夹伤模型,研究小干扰RNA（siRNA）对视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）的保护作用。设计 实验研究。 研究对象 SPF级SD大鼠54只。方法 54只SD大鼠随机分为A、B、C三组,每组18只。均选取右眼为实验眼,左眼为正常对照。在球后2 mm处用40 g压力微型视神经夹夹持视神经60 s,做视神经夹伤模型。建立模型后当天,A、B、C三组分别给予玻璃体注射10 μg、20 μg siRNA和生理盐水。视神经夹伤后10天,每组取6只大鼠用荧光金做逆行标记,14天时取标记后的大鼠双眼眼球标本做视网膜铺片并拍摄照片,RGC计数。计算RGC存活率（右眼RGC数/左眼RGC数×100%）。每组其余12只大鼠进一步用蛋白印迹法检测视网膜组织中caspase-3蛋白的表达水平。主要指标 RGC存活率,caspase-3蛋白的表达水平。结果 A、B、C组RGC存活率分别为53.63%±7.35%、57.86%±6.00%、45.00%±4.37%（F=7.11,P=0.029）,其中A组与C组（P=0.025）,B组和C组（P=0.002）之间均有显著性差异;A 组和B组之间无显著性差异（P=0.24）。A、B、C三组视网膜组织中Caspase-3蛋白与内参灰度比值分别为0.20±0.02、0.19±0.02、0.24±0.03（F=9.73,P=0.02）。其中A组与C组（P=0.005）,B组和C组（P=0.001）之间均有显著性差异;A 组和B组之间无显著性差异（P=0.418）。结论 小干扰RNA能有效保护大鼠视神经夹伤模型的RGC,提高RGC的存活率。     

银杏叶制剂EGb 761对外伤后视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用

目的 探讨银杏叶提取物制剂EGb 761对大鼠视神经损伤后视网膜神经节细胞(RGC)存活的影响.方法 大鼠48只经荧光金逆行标记后制备视神经损伤的动物模型,随机分为治疗组和对照组,两组分别给予EGb 761 150 mg/kg·d和生理盐水灌胃.在视神经损伤后4d、7d及14d观察视网膜铺片,进行RGC计数.结果 大鼠视神经损伤后4d、7d及14d,RGC数量持续减少,但治疗组均高于对照组,各时间点的差异均有统计学意义(依次为P＜0.05,P＜0.01,P＜0.01).结论 EGb761可促进视神经损伤后RGC的存活,对RGC有保护作用.     

Phenytoin blocks retinal ganglion cell death after partial optic nerve crush

Phenytoin is a well-characterized sodium channel blocker in widespread use as an anticonvulsant. In 1972, Becker and co-workers reported that phenytoin could reverse visual field loss from glaucoma. The authors therefore explored whether phenytoin could protect retinal ganglion cells from optic nerve crush. The optic nerve of Long-Evans rats was partially crushed; animals were given a single dose of either intraperitoneal phenytoin or vehicle. A third group underwent sham optic nerve crush. In a second set of experiments, the effect of phenytoin was compared to the N -methyl- D -receptor antagonist, memantine. Retinal ganglion survival was evaluated 1 week later. In addition, the effect of memantine and phenytoin on glutamate-induced intracellular calcium fluxes was evaluated.Phenytoin and memantine significantly reduced ganglion cell loss after optic nerve crush, and blunted the rise in intracellular calcium seen after administration of glutamate. Co-administration of the two agents, however, did not increase ganglion cell survival, and had no effect on ganglion cell calcium fluxes. Phenytoin can preserve retinal ganglion cells after partial optic nerve crush. This effect was not additive with a glutamate antagonist, suggesting that both agents alone are equally protective at saving the same population of ganglion cells at risk. In fact, the neuroprotective effect of the combined administration of phenytoin and memantine was significantly less than either of the two drugs alone. Phenytoin is known to decrease neuronal firing and neurotransmitter release; this may underlie its ability to serve as a neuro-protectant in this experimental paradigm.     

视神经鞘切开减压术对大鼠视神经挤压伤后RGC凋亡的影响

目地观察早期视神经鞘切开减压术对大鼠视神经挤压伤后RGC凋亡的相关机制。方法大鼠91只分为对照组、损伤组、手术组各7、42、42只通过视网膜切片技术,HE染色,免疫组化SP法于伤后3、7、15各时问点视网膜神经节细胞计数及检测BCL-2和BAX阳性细胞数。结果手术组各时间点RGC计数均高于损伤组,差异有显著性（P〈0．05）。手术组各时间点BCL-2阳性细胞数均高于损伤组,BAX阳性细胞数均低于损伤组,差异有显著性（P〈0．05）。结论早期视神经鞘切开减压术可对大鼠视神经挤压伤后能上调BCL-2基因的表达和下调BAX基因的表达而抑制RGC的凋亡。     

天麻钩藤饮抗大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞凋亡作用的实验研究

目的 观察天麻钩藤饮对视神经夹伤模型大鼠视网膜神经上皮层厚度和视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）凋亡的影响。设计 实验研究。研究对象 SPF级雄性Wistar大鼠48只。方法 将大鼠随机分6组,每组8只,分别为正常对照组,阴性对照组,天麻钩藤饮低剂量组（0.6 g/ml）、中剂量组（1.2 g/ml）、高剂量组（2.4 g/ml）和银杏叶片阳性对照组（1.2 mg/ml）,除正常对照组大鼠不做处理,其他组大鼠右眼均建立视神经夹伤模型,正常对照组和阴性对照组给予纯净水灌胃。于给药30天处死动物取眼球,做石蜡切片HE染色,观察各组视网膜神经上皮层厚度,TUNEL法检测RGC的凋亡程度。主要指标 HE染色视网膜神经上皮厚度及RGC凋亡数量。结果 阴性对照组（171.04±13.86 μm）比正常组（208.98±8.46 μm）视网膜神经上皮厚度显著减少（P=0.000）。而天麻钩藤饮中、高剂量组大鼠视网膜厚度（分别为187.68±11.16 μm 和189.22±9.54 μm）比阴性对照组显著增加（P=0.043,0.001）,且中、高剂量组与阳性对照组（191.35±9.03 μm）之间无显著差异（P=0.052,0.670）;TUNEL凋亡检测发现,阴性对照组凋亡细胞数（9.09±2.24个/高倍视野）比正常组（0.59±0.61个/高倍视野）明显增加（P=0.000）,中剂量组、高剂量组和阳性对照组RGC的凋亡（分别为7.00±1.88, 5.22±2.05, 5.03±2.03个/高倍视野）均比阴性对照组显著减少（P=0.024, 0.000,0.000）。结论 天麻钩藤饮对大鼠视神经夹伤模型具有一定抗RGC凋亡的作用,随药物浓度的升高,抗凋亡作用更显著。     

饱和氢气水对大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞保护作用的实验研究

 目的 探索饱和氢气水对大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）的保护作用。设计 实验研究。研究对象 SPF级SD大鼠18只。方法 对18只大鼠采用随机数表法随机分为3组,每组6只。均选取右眼为实验眼,左眼为正常对照眼。使用40 g微型视神经夹在大鼠视神经球后2 mm处夹持60 s建立视神经夹伤模型。A组给予饱和氢气水腹腔注射,5 ml/kg,每日1次;B组和C组分别给予饱和氢气水和生理盐水滴眼,每次1滴,每日3次。用药第9天,麻醉下采用3%荧光金双上丘两点注射法逆行标记大鼠RGC,第14天深麻醉下取眼球并处死动物,行视网膜定向铺片,距离视乳头中心上下左右各2 mm 拍摄照片,盲法计数RGC。主要指标 RGC存活率。结果 A组、B组和C组RGC存活率分别为40.35%±13.04%、58.34%±14.00%和43.07%±7.80%（F=3.965, P=0.041）。其中B组与A组和C组之间均有显著性差异（P=0.020;P=0.042）;A组和C组之间无显著性差异（P=0.698）。结论 饱和氢气水滴眼2周对大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞可能具有一定的保护作用。（眼科,2014, 23： 107-110）     

表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯对大鼠视神经钳夹伤后视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用

　　目的　观察绿茶提取物表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯(EGCG)对大鼠视神经钳夹伤视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）是否具有保护作用。方法　72只Wistar大鼠随机分为正常对照组（A组）、假手术+EGCG组（B组）、视神经钳夹+生理盐水组（C组）、视神经钳夹+EGCG组（D组）等4组,每组各18只。B、D组在视神经钳夹或假手术前2 d起给予腹腔注射EGCG  25 mg/（kg·d）,直至手术后2 d,共5 d;随后改为口服2 mg/（kg·d）。C组以生理盐水替代EGCG。每次每组取6只大鼠,采用3%荧光金经上丘逆行标记RGC方法,比较各组视神经钳夹伤后7、14、28 d RGC的存活数量;采用免疫组织化学染色及蛋白免疫印迹方法检测各组视神经组织神经丝蛋白（NF-L）的表达。结果　视神经钳夹伤后7 d,C、D组RGC存活数量分别为（943.61±85.06）、（1 134.45±117.85） 个/mm2;14 d时分别为（812.76±172.07）、（1 021.67±94.02） 个/mm2;28 d时分别为（766.94±171.45）、（1 009.72±126.40）个/mm2。各时间点D组RGC存活数量均显著高于C组（t=3.216,2.609,2.792;P=0.009,0.026,0.019）。各时间点A、B组间RGC存活数量差异无统计学意义（t=0.749,0.403,0.254;P值均＞0.05）;视神经钳夹后7、14、28 d,D组视神经组织NFL表达均高于C组（t=9.847,5.731,2.868;P=0.001,0.005,0.045）。结论　EGCG对大鼠视神经钳夹伤后RGC具有一定的保护作用。      

杞贞胶囊对视网膜神经节细胞保护作用及其作用机制的实验研究

目的 探索杞贞胶囊对大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用及其作用机制。设计 实验研究。研究对象 SPF级SD大鼠72只。方法 72只SD大鼠随机分为2组：用药组36只;对照组36只。两组大鼠右眼行视神经夹伤,于球后2 mm处用40 g微型视神经夹夹伤视神经60 s。左眼作为正常对照。夹伤后2小时及此后每日予以灌胃给药一次。用药组给予20%杞贞溶液2.5 ml/kg,对照组给予生理盐水2.5 ml/kg。给药第28天取眼球标本,用药组和对照组各取24只行HE染色﹑Tunel试剂盒染色﹑Caspase-3免疫组化染色;剩余每组12只分离视网膜提取mRNA,测定Bax和Bcl-2基因的表达量。主要指标 视网膜厚度﹑Bax和Bcl-2基因表达量。结果 用药组视网膜厚度平均为（109.0±4.4）μm;对照组视网膜厚度为（101.8±7.6）μm（F=29.497,P=0.028）。两组间Bax基因表达差异具有统计学意义（t=1.089,P=0.028）;Bcl-2基因表达差异未见统计学意义（t=0.553,P=0.692）。结论 杞贞胶囊对大鼠视神经夹伤后的视网膜神经节细胞具有保护作用,可能通过下调Bax基因表达和抑制Caspase蛋白活性从而减少视网膜神经节细胞凋亡。     

Citicoline and lithium rescue retinal ganglion cells following partial optic nerve crush in the rat

Citicoline and lithium (Li(-)) have been shown to support retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival and axon regeneration in vitro. Optic nerve crush (ONC) is a model of both brain axonal injury and certain aspects of the glaucomatous degeneration of RGC. We have used this model to quantify protection offered to RGC by these drugs and to determine whether their effects are mediated by enhanced expression of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2. Adult rats (6-12 per group) were subjected to ONC accompanied by a contralateral sham operation. Animals were treated intraperitoneally with either vehicle, citicoline sodium (1g/kg daily for up to 7 days and 300 mg/kg daily afterwards), lithium chloride (30 mg/kg daily), or both drugs combined. Fluorogold was injected bilaterally into superior colliculi 1, 5 or 19 days after ONC. Labeled cells were counted under a fluorescence microscope 2 days after tracer injection. In a separate set of experiments the effects of treatments on expression of Bcl-2 in retinas were evaluated by immunohistochemistry. In vehicle-treated animals there was a progressive decrease of RGC density after crush. This decrease was attenuated in citicoline-treated animals 1 week and 3 weeks after the crush. In the lithium-treated group protection was even more pronounced. In animals treated with both drugs RGC protection was similar to that achieved by lithium alone. Bcl-2 immunoreactivity was seen predominantly in retinal ganglion cells. Its increase was recorded in the lithium and citicoline group as well as in animals treated with the combination of both drugs. Both citicoline and lithium protect RGC and their axons in vivo against delayed degeneration triggered by the ONC. Retinoprotective action of both drugs may involve an increase in Bcl-2 expression.     

杞贞胶囊对大鼠视网膜节细胞的保护作用

目的通过大鼠视神经夹伤模型,探讨杞贞胶囊对视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用。方法50只大鼠随机分为5组,每组10只,右眼制作视神经夹伤模型。阴性对照组、阳性对照组及低、中、高剂量组分别用生理盐水、4.69%益脉康及低(16.4g生药/100ml)、中(32.8g生药/100ml)、高(65.6g生药/100ml)剂量的杞贞胶囊溶液灌胃给药,每日1次,持续4周。动物安死术前5d逆行标记节细胞,用彩色颗粒分析软件计数节细胞。结果阴性对照组、阳性对照组和低、中、高剂量组节细胞平均存活率分别为(40.88±12.50)%、(59.34±9.19)%、(52.66±12.52)%、(59.39±7.45)%和(63.00±8.95)%。阴性对照组与低剂量组之间差异具有显著性(P=0.014),阴性对照组与阳性对照组、中、高剂量组之间差异有非常显著性(P<0.01)。结论杞贞胶囊能有效地保护视网膜神经节细胞,随着给药剂量的增加,作用逐渐增强。益脉康也具有视网膜神经节细胞保护作用。     

大剂量甲基泼尼松龙对大鼠视神经挤压伤后RGC凋亡的影响

目的　观察大剂量甲基泼尼松龙 (MP)对大鼠视神经挤压伤后视网膜神经节细胞 (RGC)凋亡的影响。方法　大鼠 12 6只分为正常对照组 18只 3 6眼、损伤组 54只 54眼和MP治疗组 54只 54眼。伤后 4、7和 14d ,通过视网膜铺片和切片相结合的技术 ,进行细胞原位凋亡检测以及Bcl 2和Bax阳性细胞计数 (免疫组化SP法 )。结果　正常对照组有少量凋亡细胞 ,Bcl 2和Bax阳性细胞数少 ;伤后 4、7、14d凋亡细胞大量增加 ,治疗组凋亡细胞各时间点均低于损伤组 ,差异有显著性 (P <0 0 5) ;治疗组Bcl 2阳性细胞数各时间点均高于损伤组 ,Bax阳性细胞数均低于损伤组 ,差异有显著性 (P <0 0 5)。结论　大剂量MP能抑制视神经挫伤后RGC的凋亡 ,上调bcl 2基因的表达和下调bax基因的表达可能是MP治疗作用机制之一