Bilateral phrenic nerve palsy associated with open-heart surgery

The incidence of phrenic nerve palsy after open-heart surgery has been estimated at 10%, but it is usually unilateral and does not cause symptoms. Bilateral phrenic nerve injury after coronary artery bypass surgery is a rare complication. This case report describes a patient who developed bilateral phrenic nerve palsies and required prolonged ventilatory support. Denervation of both hemidiaphragms was documented by needle electromyography four weeks after bypass surgery. The patient required total ventilatory support for three months and partial ventilatory support for an additional three months. This case demonstrates the usefulness of electromyographic screening for documentation and prognostication after phrenic nerve injury. The cause of the lesion was unclear, but hypothermia and stretch were leading hypotheses. This patient developed the phrenic nerve palsies despite using a cardiac insulation pad.     

Simultaneous Erb's and Klumpke's palsy: Case report

Mapping nerve deficits during a physical exam after trauma to the upper extremity can help determine not only if the brachial plexus was injured but also which nerve roots were involved. A 28-year-old male presented with simultaneous signs and symptoms of Erb's(C5) and Klumpke's(C8, T1) palsy, with sparing of the C6 and C7 roots. The patient presented several months ago to his local emergency room with shortness of breath, which was determined to be caused by left diaphragmatic paralysis through clinical and radiographical evidence. However, the etiology of the current nerve dysfunction in the upper extremity remained unknown. With persistent questioning and establishing the patient's trust in the caregivers, it was revealed that the patient had attempted suicidal hanging. We describe the clinical features and the likely mechanism of injury leading to this previously unreported combination of brachial plexus injuries. The unique injuries to this patient's brachial plexus can be explained by the sequence of events during the attempted suicidal hanging. The upper brachial plexus was injured during the initial moments where the neck was excessively stretched and the lower brachial plexus was injured due to the patient reaching up and holding himself by his arm for an extended period of time.     

动态三维MRI臂丛成像在臂丛根性损伤的临床应用

目的探讨动态三维MRI臂丛成像技术在诊断臂丛神经根性损伤的影像学表现与临床应用。方法采用短时反转恢复序列（STIR）技术对10例臂丛神经根性损伤患者行动态三维MRI臂丛成像,所有10例患者均手术证实为臂丛根性损伤。结果本组患者在伤后早期（1～3天）内行三维MRI臂丛成像均未见明显臂丛根性损伤的特征性MRI表现;伤后10bt5天（平均10天）后,再次行三维MRI臂丛成像,出现典型的臂丛根性损伤MRI表现：神经根消失或离断、创伤性脊膜囊肿、脊髓偏移等。结论三维MRI臂丛成像可以很好地地显示臂丛神经的解剖结构,通过动态成像可以显示臂丛根性神经损伤短期内动态变化的特征性影像学表现;动态三维MRI具有对臂丛神经根性损伤定位准确、无创、操作简单等优点,有着很高的临床应用价值。     

周围神经术前肌电图结果与术中所见的比较研究及误诊原因分析

目的 探讨肌电图(EMG)检查对周围神经损伤的诊断意义，分析误诊的原因。方法 收集2000年1月至2003年4月行手术治疗的周围神经损伤患者63例(69条神经)，按神经损伤特点分为开放性周围神经损伤组、闭合性周围神经损害组、臂丛损伤组和神经修复后再生组，各组患者均于术前进行肌电图检测，并将检测结果与术中所见进行比较、分析。结果 开放性周围神经损伤组术前EMG对神经完全损伤的诊断符合率为73.08％，与术中所见结果比较，差异有统计学意义。闭合性周围神经损害组对受损神经的定性、定位诊断，均在术中得到证实。臂丛损伤组的大体定位正确率达96．30％，完全符合率达70．37％；对臂丛完全根性损伤的检出率为68．52％，与磁共振的检出率(55．56％)相比，差异无统计学意义。神经修复后再生组5条神经，EMG结果与术中所见3条符合，2条不符合。69条神经中，EMG检查完全符合率为71.01％，基本符合率为85．51％，完全不符率为13．04％；假阳性率为4．49％，假阴性率为22．73％。结论 EMG检查对损伤神经的定位、定性诊断及神经修复后再生状况的评价在临床诊治中具有重要的指导意义，但可出现假阳性及假阴性结果，且以运动诱发电位的假阴性为多。术前EMG与磁共振检查相结合，可提高对臂丛神经完全根性损伤的检出率。     

Dyspnea as the predominant manifestation of bilateral phrenic neuropathy

Phrenic neuropathy associated with brachial neuritis has been well described; however, bilateral phrenic neuropathy with minimal or no involvement of the brachial plexus has not. We review the clinical features, as well as the results of radiographic studies, pulmonary function tests, and electrodiagnostic studies, of 3 patients in whom dyspnea was the presenting manifestation of bilateral phrenic neuropathy. All 3 patients had acute-onset dyspnea, which led to consideration of a pulmonary or cardiac etiology. Phrenic nerve conduction studies showed bilateral axonal degeneration of the phrenic nerves. Diaphragmatic paralysis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of acute-onset dyspnea. Dyspnea increases typically when the patient lies down, and paradoxical respiration may be present. Neck, shoulder, or upper limb pain may occur at onset. Inspiratory pressures may be reduced, but a comparison of the forced vital capacity when the patient is standing and supine is more specific for diaphragmatic weakness. Phrenic nerve conduction studies and diaphragmatic electromyography may provide evidence of bilateral involvement. Subclinical evidence of brachial plexus involvement may be present. The prognosis for patients with bilateral phrenic neuropathy may be more favorable than reported previously.     

Delayed presentation of traumatic facial nerve (CN VII) paralysis

Facial nerve paralysis (Cranial Nerve VII, CN VII) can be a disfiguring disorder with profound impact upon the patient. The etiology of facial nerve paralysis may be congenital, iatrogenic, or result from neoplasm, infection, trauma, or toxic exposure. In the emergency department, the most common cause of unilateral facial paralysis is Bell’s palsy, also known as idiopathic facial paralysis (IFP). We report a case of delayed presentation of unilateral facial nerve paralysis 3 days after sustaining a traumatic head injury. Re-evaluation and imaging of this patient revealed a full facial paralysis and temporal bone fracture extending into the facial canal. Because cranial nerve injuries occur in approximately 5–10% of head-injured patients, a good history and physical examination is important to differentiate IFP from another etiology. Newer generation high-resolution computed tomography (CT) scans are commonly demonstrating these fractures. An understanding of this complication, appropriate patient follow-up, and early involvement of the Otolaryngologist is important in management of these patients. The mechanism as well as the timing of facial nerve paralysis will determine the proper evaluation, consultation, and management for the patient. Patients with total or immediate paralysis as well as those with poorly prognostic audiogram results are good candidates for surgical repair.     

3．0T磁共振对创伤性臂丛神经损伤的诊断价值探讨

目的评价3．0T磁共振（MRI）检查在创伤性臂丛神经损伤诊断中的价值。方法对3l例创伤性臂丛神经损伤患者进行术前MRI各序列检查后,再进行图像后处理,并与手术探查中的发现进行比较;比较术前MRI检查在诊断神经完全性损伤中的作用。结果术前MRI检查对创伤性臂丛神经根损伤的诊断符合率为86．4％;外伤性囊肿的诊断符合率为100％。结论MRI检查可明显提高创伤性臂丛神经损伤的诊断符合率,是一种有前途的辅助诊断、指导治疗臂丛神经损伤的途径。     

The natural history and management of brachial plexus birth palsy

Brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP) is an upper extremity paralysis that occurs due to traction injury of the brachial plexus during childbirth. Approximately 20 % of children with brachial plexus birth palsy will have residual neurologic deficits. These permanent and significant impacts on upper limb function continue to spur interest in optimizing the management of a problem with a highly variable natural history. BPBP is generally diagnosed on clinical examination and does not typically require cross-sectional imaging. Physical examination is also the best modality to determine candidates for microsurgical reconstruction of the brachial plexus. The key finding on physical examination that determines need for microsurgery is recovery of antigravity elbow flexion by 3–6 months of age. When indicated, both microsurgery and secondary shoulder and elbow procedures are effective and can substantially improve functional outcomes. These procedures include nerve transfers and nerve grafting in infants and secondary procedures in children, such as botulinum toxin injection, shoulder tendon transfers, and humeral derotational osteotomy.     

高频超声在臂丛椎间孔内神经根损伤及病变诊断中的应用

目的 探讨高频超声在诊断臂丛椎间孔内神经根损伤及病变中的价值。方法 高频超声检查和诊断27例臂丛椎间孔内神经根撕脱伤和8例臂丛神经根部发出神经鞘瘤,并与手术所见进行比较,随机选择30例无神经外伤的成年人作为正常对照组,观察颈椎椎间孔内神经节及出椎间孔外臂丛神经声像图。结果 正常臂丛椎间孔内神经与脊髓连接部、脊神经节的声像图表现为低回声结构,椎动脉长轴及横突根部是超声检查椎间孔内神经根的定位标志。臂丛神经椎间孔内C5～C8神经根和出椎间孔外神经,均能得到良好的显示,显示率为100％。27例臂丛神经椎间孔内根性撕脱伤,超声显示椎间孔内神经节低回声区扩大,连续性中断或消失,出椎间孔外远端神经增粗或椎管旁伴有脑脊液囊肿形成。8例臂丛神经根部发出神经鞘瘤,超声显示椎间孔外脊神经节呈瘤样改变,向神经干延伸,内为束状实性回声,有血供信号。结论 高频超声检查臂丛神经椎间孔内神经根性撕脱伤或病变,可以提供有价值的形态学诊断信息。     

Permanent upper trunk plexopathy after interscalene brachial plexus block

Interscalene brachial plexus block (IBPB) has been widely used in shoulder surgical procedures. The incidence of postoperative neural injury has been estimated to be as high as 3 %. We report a long-term neurologic deficit after a nerve stimulator assisted brachial plexus block. A 55 year-old male, with right shoulder impingement syndrome was scheduled for elective surgery. The patient was given an oral dose of 10 mg of diazepam prior to the nerve stimulator assisted brachial plexus block. The patient immediately complained, as soon as the needle was placed in the interscalene area, of a sharp pain in his right arm and he was sedated further. Twenty-four hours later, the patient complained of severe shoulder and arm pain that required an increased dose of analgesics. Severe peri-scapular atrophy developed over the following days. Electromyography studies revealed an upper trunk plexus injury with severe denervation of the supraspinatus, infraspinatus and deltoid muscles together with a moderate denervation of the biceps brachii muscle. Chest X-rays showed a diaphragmatic palsy which was not present post operatively. Pulmonary function tests were also affected. Phrenic nerve paralysis was still present 18 months after the block as was dysfunction of the brachial plexus resulting in an inability to perform flexion, abduction and external rotation of the right shoulder. Severe brachial plexopathy was probably due to a local anesthetic having been administrated through the perineurium and into the nerve fascicles. Severe brachial plexopathy is an uncommon but catastrophic complication of IBPB. We propose a clinical algorithm using ultrasound guidance during nerve blocks as a safer technique of regional anesthesia.     

眼外肌麻痹患者257例的临床特征及病因分析

目的：探讨眼外肌麻痹的临床特征和病因。方法收集并回顾性分析257例眼外肌麻痹患者的临床资料,记录病史、临床表现以及相应的神经内科、眼科、内分泌科和影像学检查结果。结果单纯上眼睑下垂80例,单纯双眼复视131例,上眼睑下垂和双眼复视39例;单侧眼外肌麻痹223例,双侧眼外肌麻痹32例;外直肌麻痹84例,动眼神经支配的眼外肌麻痹178例,上斜肌麻痹24例;82例伴有眼眶局部疼痛,12例伴有瞳孔扩大;眼球运动神经病变163例,神经-肌肉接头病变69例,眼外肌病变25例。在163例眼球运动神经病变患者中,单个眼球运动神经麻痹148例,占90.8%;多个眼球运动神经麻痹15例,占9.2%。眼球运动神经周围性损害110例,占67.5%,核性损害16例,占9.8%,核间性损害13例,占8.0%,核上性损害24例占14.7%。确诊的病因有14种,包括重症肌无力,糖尿病性眼球运动神经损伤,动脉硬化缺血性眼球运动神经损伤,局部非特异性炎症,外伤性,局部占位性病变,甲状腺病变,颅内压增高,颅内后交通动脉瘤,线粒体脑肌病,颈内动脉海绵窦瘘,远隔部位肿瘤,多发性硬化,局部注射肉毒素,进行性肌营养不良。结论眼外肌麻痹的常见症状是双眼复视和上眼睑下垂,单侧眼外肌麻痹发生率高于双侧眼外肌麻痹,动眼神经支配的眼外肌麻痹发生率最高。眼眶部疼痛和瞳孔改变是常见的伴随症状。眼球运动神经性眼外肌麻痹患者并发高血压病、糖尿病的比例较高。眼外肌麻痹患者需要常规检查血糖,甲功、眼眶CT、头颅CT和（或）MRI、新斯的明试验,伴有瞳孔扩大时需要DSA排除颅内动脉瘤。     

创伤性臂丛神经损伤的磁共振成像3D-FIESTA-C、IDEAL序列特征及诊断价值

目的：探讨创伤性臂丛神经损伤的磁共振成像（MRI）三维循环相位稳态采集快速成像（three-dimensional fast imaging employing steady state acquisition with cycled phases,3D-FIESTA-C）序列和三点法非对称回波水脂分离成像（iterative decomposition of water and fat with echo asymmetry and least squares estimation,IDEAL）序列特征及诊断价值。方法：对32例创伤性臂丛神经损伤患者进行术前MRI 3D-FIESTA-C及IDEAL序列检查后,再行图像后处理及诊断,总结臂丛神经损伤的MRI特征,将诊断结果与手术探查结果进行比较,评价术前MRI 3D-FIESTA-C联合IDEAL序列检查在诊断臂丛神经损伤中的作用。结果：12例患者术后证实共有39条节前神经损伤,3D-FIESTA-C序列显示出38条,其中31条神经根影像提示消失或离断,7条神经根丝减少、迂曲,无法连续追踪至椎间孔,同时可伴有神经根袖变钝、脊膜囊肿形成、硬脊膜增厚及脊髓形态信号异常改变。术前MRI 3D-FIESTA-C序列诊断臂丛神经节前损伤的灵敏度为97.5%,特异度为100%,准确率达98.3%。31例120条节后损伤中共12例45条节后神经断裂,其中7条伴纤维瘤形成,IDEAL序列显示42条节后神经根断裂,其他损伤表现为神经增粗,扭曲,走行僵直,周围结构水肿紊乱等。术前IDEAL序列诊断臂丛节后损伤的灵敏度为96.7%,特异度为100%,准确率为97.1%。结论：MRI 3D-FIESTA-C联合IDEAL序列检查可清晰显示节前及节后臂丛神经损伤情况,对臂丛神经损伤的诊断符合率较高,可作为临床首选的无创性影像学方法。     

婴幼儿臂丛神经损伤的MRI表现及其诊断价值

目的探讨婴幼儿臂丛神经损伤的磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)征象及其诊断价值。材料与方法收集临床诊断臂丛神经损伤的15例患儿的MRI和肌电图资料进行回顾性分析,并用Kappa检验判断两者结果间的一致程度,P0.05为差异有统计学意义。结果 15例患儿中,双侧臂丛神经损伤者8例,单侧者7例,共91条神经受损。单纯节前损伤28例,单纯节后损伤51例,同时累及节前节后损伤12例。节前损伤主要表现为神经根消失或离断、神经根增粗、神经根袖扩张和脊膜囊肿。节后损伤主要表现为神经干增粗、神经干鞘膜不规则增宽、神经干走形僵直、神经干连续性中断并脑脊液胸膜瘘和神经干邻近结构水肿。臂丛损伤MRI与肌电图累及范围一致性好(κ=0.718,P0.05)。结论婴幼儿MRI臂丛神经成像可早期发现病变,并可作为婴幼儿早期臂丛神经损伤筛查及复查的重要依据。     

Open scapulothoracic dissociation

Scapulothoracic dissociation refers to the traumatic separation of the shoulder from the chest wall. This most commonly occurs as a closed injury. We present a case of open scapulothoracic dissociation and emphasize clinical features unique to this injury. In both closed and open scapulothoracic dissociation, the force necessary to shear the scapula from its thoracic attachments results in vascular disruption and neurologic injury to the upper extremity. As a consequence, patients have a pulseless, flail upper extremity with a significant chest wall hematoma (closed) or active bleeding (open). The first priority is to resuscitate and address life-threatening injuries. If the patient has active bleeding, immediate vascular control to prevent exsanguination is essential. Patients with ischemia and an incomplete injury or unreliable neurologic examination need revascularization. Outcome is based on the extent of brachial plexus or cervical nerve root avulsion. Patients with loss of neurologic function ultimately benefit from amputation at the appropriate level.     

高频超声在臂丛神经节前和节后损伤诊断中的应用

目的 探讨高频超声在诊断臂丛神经节前和节后损伤中的价值.方法 高频超声检查和诊断31例创伤性臂丛神经节前和节后损伤,并与手术所见进行比较,随机选择17例无神经外伤的成年人作为正常对照组,观察正常臂丛神经的超声图像.结果 高频超声显示斜角肌间隙和锁骨下动脉是臂丛神经检查的重要解剖标志;C5～ C7和上、中干显示率为100%(17/17),C8、T1和下干显示率为88.3%(15/17),19例臂丛神经节前损伤显示,臂丛神经根发出处变细,连续性中断或消失,椎间孔外远端神经增粗或椎管旁伴有脑脊液囊性聚集.12例臂丛神经节后损伤显示臂丛神经根部发出内径正常,形态走行连续,远端神经干及束平面不同程度神经增粗、水肿粘连.结论 高频超声可作为检查臂丛神经节前、节后损伤的首选方法之一,为临床手术提供有价值的影像学信息,值得临床推广应用.     

超声引导臂丛神经穿刺置管在断指再植术后镇痛中的应用

目的探讨超声引导臂丛神经穿刺置管在断指再植术后镇痛的指导价值。方法80例急诊拟行一指或两指断指再植手术的患者（男58例,女22例）,年龄17～67岁,ASAI～III级,无颈部外伤及臂丛神经损伤,按术后镇痛方式随机分为连续臂丛神经阻滞（PCBA组）和静脉镇痛组（PCIA组）。采用视觉模糊评分（VAS）对两组患者术后24h和48h的镇静、镇痛程度进行评价,并记录出现恶心、呕吐、膈神经阻滞等并发症的例数。结果所有患者均能舒适地接受超声引导臂丛神经穿刺过程,术中麻醉效果确切。PCBA组超声引导臂丛穿刺置管过程顺利,全部成功。PCBA组与PCIA组比较,VAS评分和镇静程度差异有显著统计学意义（P〈0．叭）,PCIA组的血管痉挛及恶心、呕吐发生率高于PCBA组。结论应用超声引导臂丛神经穿刺置管具有神经定位准确,成功率高;且PCBA组更好地改善了再植指的血运供应,提高了再植指的成活率,避免了加用阿片类药物引起的恶心、呕吐等并发症,增加了患者的舒适度。     

电视胸腔镜胸段膈神经游离术

目的应用电视胸腔镜技术全程游离胸段膈神经用于膈神经移位修复臂丛神经损伤.方法从1999年8月至2000年7月,在12例臂丛神经损伤患者(男性11例,女性1例.年龄20～38岁,平均28岁.左侧损伤5例,右侧损伤7例.)中应用电视胸腔镜(Video assisted thoracic surgery,VATS)技术全程游离膈神经.手术中患者取平卧位,双腔气管插管全身麻醉以保证术侧肺萎陷.于第5肋间腋中线前约2 cm作小切口置Stryker 10 mm 0°胸腔镜,另于腋前线第3肋间及胸骨旁线外2 cm第2肋间作两个小切口置手术器械.采用两把普通长直角钳及内镜外科器械钝性及锐性分离膈神经及血管.结果12例均成功地在胸腔镜下完成膈神经的游离,其中3例同时游离伴行的心包膈血管.无手术相关并发症.全程游离后膈神经平均较传统颈部游离延长16 cm.结论采用电视胸腔镜游离膈神经移位治疗臂丛神经损伤是一种安全而微创的手术新方法.     

Neurophysiological Identification of Position-Induced Neurologic Injury During Anterior Cervical Spine Surgery

This study was a retrospective review of 3,806 patients who underwent anterior cervical spine surgery with multi-modality neurophysiological monitoring consisting of transcranial electric motor evoked potentials, somatosensory evoked potentials and spontaneous electromyography between 1999–2003. The objectives of this study were twofold: (1) to evaluate the role of transcranial electric motor evoked potential tceMEP and ulnar nerve somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP) monitoring for identifying impending position-related stretch brachial plexopathy, peripheral nerve entrapment/compression or spinal cord compression and (2) to estimate the point-prevalence of impending neurologic injury secondary to surgical positioning effects. Sixty-nine of 3,806 patients (1.8% showed intraoperative evidence of impending neurologic injury secondary to positioning, prompting interventional repositioning of the patient. The brachial plexus was the site of evolving injury in 65% of these 69 cases. Impending brachial plexopathy was most commonly noted immediately following shoulder taping and the application of counter-traction. Brachial plexus stretch upon neck extension for optimal surgical access and visualization was second in frequency-of-occurrence. Evolving traction injury to the ulnar nerve attributed to tightly-wrapped or malpositioned arms was observed in 16% of alerted cases, whereas evolving spinal cord injury following neck extension accounted for an additional 19%. This study highlights the role of tceMEP and ulnar nerve SSEP monitoring for detecting emerging peripheral nerve injury secondary to positioning in preparation for and during anterior cervical spine surgery.     

Clinical Utility of Low‐Volume Ultrasound‐Guided Interscalene Blockade

Objective. The purpose of this series is to describe cases in which ultrasound guidance was used to allow patients to receive the benefits of regional anesthesia while safely circumventing traditional contraindications to interscalene blockade (ISB). Methods. Targeted low‐volume ISB was performed in 3 patients in whom this procedure would typically be contraindicated because of phrenic nerve blockade or risk of local anesthetic toxicity. A patient with severe respiratory dysfunction, a patient undergoing bilateral shoulder surgery, and a patient requiring awake fiberoptic intubation underwent low‐volume ultrasound‐guided ISB. The ultrasound technique involved the use a low local anesthetic volume, anatomic identification of the brachial plexus trunk, needle placement opposite the phrenic nerve position, and control over local anesthetic spread. Results. In both patients in whom diaphragmatic paralysis was a concern, postoperative respiratory parameters indicated successful regional analgesia without evidence of phrenic nerve blockade. In the patient requiring an additional regional anesthetic procedure, ISB was performed with a local anesthetic volume low enough to avoid exceeding toxic safety thresholds. Conclusions. Although further studies are warranted, we report on 3 cases in which ultrasound guidance was used to allow patients to receive the benefits of regional anesthesia while safely avoiding standard contraindications to ISB. Ultrasound technology may allow providers to perform low‐volume brachial plexus blockade while avoiding issues related to phrenic nerve blockade and systemic local anesthetic toxicity.