Genetic stability determinants of temperature sensitive, live attenuated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine candidates

An intranasally delivered, live attenuated, temperature sensitive (ts) respiratory syncytial virus vaccine candidate, rA2cp248/404/1,030DeltaSH, exhibits a low level of genetic instability in clinical studies, in contrast to the relatively high stability of two similar candidates, cpts248/404 and rA2cp248/404DeltaSH. The latter strains, containing two ts mutations (248ts and 404ts), are partially growth restricted at 37 degrees C, whereas, rA2cp248/404/1,030DeltaSH contains an additional ts mutation (1,030ts) that increases attenuation and partially restricts virus growth at 35 degrees C. Since the maximum human airway temperature is 35.5 degrees C, we investigated whether growth restriction at 35 degrees C contributes to genetic instability of rA2cp248/404/1,030DeltaSH in vitro. We conducted in vitro passage studies with the three strains at 32 degrees C (a fully permissive growth temperature) and 35 degrees C (restrictive for only rA2cp248/404/1,030DeltaSH). Instability of the ts phenotype was observed only in rA2cp248/404/1,030DeltaSH passaged at 35 degrees C, and corresponded with reversion at the 248ts or 1,030ts mutation sites, as observed in clinical studies. This study indicates that ts mutations that partially restrict replication at physiologic temperatures may contribute to genetic instability of viruses in vivo. In vitro passage studies performed at appropriate temperatures can be used to assess genetic stability and to prioritize ts vaccine candidates for clinical evaluation.     

Understanding respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine-enhanced disease

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common cause of lower respiratory tract infection in infants and children worldwide. In addition, RSV causes serious disease in elderly and immune compromised individuals. RSV infection of children previously immunized with a formalin-inactivated (FI)-RSV vaccine is associated with enhanced disease and pulmonary eosinophilia that is believed to be due to an exaggerated memory Th2 response. As a consequence, there is currently no licensed RSV vaccine and detailed studies directed towards prevention of vaccine-associated disease are a critical first step in the development of a safe and effective vaccine. The BALB/c mouse model of RSV infection faithfully mimics the human respiratory disease. Mice previously immunized with either FI-RSV or a recombinant vaccinia virus (vv) that expresses the attachment (G) glycoprotein exhibit extensive lung inflammation and injury, pulmonary eosinophilia, and enhanced disease following challenge RSV infection. CD4 T cells secreting Th2 cytokines are necessary for this response because their depletion eliminates eosinophilia. Intriguing recent studies have demonstrated that RSV-specific CD8 T cells can inhibit Th2-mediated pulmonary eosinophilia in vvG-primed mice by as yet unknown mechanisms. Information gained from the animal models will provide important information and novel approaches for the rational design of a safe and efficacious RSV vaccine.     

Separation and concentration of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) antigens

Respiratory syncytial virus has been concentrated by precipitation with polyethlene glycol-6000 and partially separated from cellular debris by sucrose-gradient centrifugation. Treatment of the concentrated virus with 0.5% sodium deoxycholate results in a resolution of this material into two fractions with different (1.27 and 1.19 g/cm³) densities and distinct antigenic properties. The materials separated are of sufficient antigenic purity for use as reagents in radioimmunoassay procedures.     

Administration of a highly attenuated, live respiratory syncytial virus vaccine to adults and children.

A highly attenuated respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) experimental vaccine, RSV ts-2, was sequentially evaluated in adults, seropositive children, and finally, fully susceptible seronegative children. The vaccine was administered intranasally in doses ranging from 10(5.2) to 10(6.3) PFU/ml. In both adults and children, the vaccine proved to be poorly infectious. Although poor infectivity would not have been predicted from tissue culture studies of RSV ts-2 growth, the human experience closely parallels the experience in a series of animal models, including the chimpanzee. The poor infectivity of this RSV vaccine virus preparation suggests that the postulated defect in the RSV ts-2 fusion protein may be important in determining in vivo infectivity of RSV.     

Effects of alveolar macrophage depletion on liposomal vaccine protection against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)

Little is known about the identities and roles of antigen-presenting cells upon exposure to antigens of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Here, we focused on elucidating the importance of alveolar macrophages in conferring protective immunity in mice administered a liposome-encapsulated recombinant fragment of the RSV G protein. Mice were depleted of alveolar macrophages by intranasal inoculation of liposome-encapsulated dichloromethylenediphosphonic acid (DMDP). Mice depleted of alveolar macrophages prior to immunization developed reduced levels of serum RSV-neutralizing antibody and showed dramatically impaired protection against RSV challenge. The severity of interstitial inflammation was also markedly reduced in macrophage-depleted mice. In conclusion, this study demonstrates a pivotal role for alveolar macrophages during exposure to liposome-encapsulated RSV antigen in initiating both protective and histopathological responses against RSV.     

Participation of cytoskeletal intermediate filaments in the infectious cycle of human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)

RSV infection of Hep-2 or HeLa cells leads to biochemical and morphological changes of cytoskeletal intermediate filaments (IF). Thus, human cytokeratin 18 is modified to generate a more acidic polypeptide of slightly larger apparent molecular weight. In addition, the amounts of vimentin and other cytokeratins are reduced, probably as a consequence of proteolytic degradation. These changes are reflected in a decrease of immunofluorescence with specific antibodies in RSV-induced syncytia and a more disorganized arrangement of IF arrays. About 50% of virus nucleoprotein (NP) is extracted with the high salt and detergent-insoluble intermediate filament fraction. Pulse-chase experiments indicate that NP needs a maturation period after synthesis to associate with IF. It is suggested that RSV needs to interact with IF during its life cycle and that association of NP, and/or other viral components, with IF might then lead to cytoskeletal structures becoming unstable in RSV-infected cells.     

Performance characteristics of VIDAS and directigen respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) antigen detection assays and culture for the identification of RSV in respiratory specimens

In a comparison of the Directigen and VIDAS respiratory syncytial virus antigen detection assays with viral culture, the sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and testing efficiency were 86, 93.1, 82.7, 94.6, and 91.2% for Directigen; 96.1, 90.8, 80.3, 98.3, and 92.3% for VIDAS; and 88.2, 100, 100, 95.7, and 96.8% for viral culture, respectively.     

Comparison of two rapid methods for detection of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) (Testpack RSV and ortho RSV ELISA) with direct immunofluorescence and virus isolation for the diagnosis of pediatric RSV infection.

The ability of two commercial immunoassays to detect respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in respiratory specimens was evaluated as follows: 152 specimens were tested by TestPack RSV (Abbott), and 72 were tested by Ortho RSV ELISA (Ortho). Test outcomes were compared with those of virus isolation alone, direct immunofluorescence assay (DFA) alone, or virus isolation and/or DFA. TestPack RSV versus virus isolation showed 91% sensitivity, 96% specificity, 93% positive predictive value (PPV), and 95% negative predictive value (NPV). TestPack RSV versus DFA showed 89% sensitivity, 97% specificity, 96% PPV, and 93% NPV. When TestPack RSV performance was compared with that of virus isolation and DFA, the sensitivity was 87% and the specificity was 100%. Ortho RSV ELISA versus virus isolation showed 88% sensitivity, 87% specificity, 79% PPV, and 93% NPV. Ortho RSV ELISA versus DFA showed 91% sensitivity, 88% specificity, 81% PPV and 95% NPV. When Ortho RSV ELISA performance was compared with that of virus isolation and DFA, the sensitivity was 86%, the specificity was 89%, the PPV was 86%, and the NPV was 89%. The accuracy of the TestPack RSV in combination with ease of performance and no need for specialized equipment or special skills make it an attractive alternative to DFA for rapid direct detection of RSV.     

人源抗呼吸道合胞病毒基因工程单克隆抗体Fab段基因的筛选和表达

目的采用噬菌体表面呈现和重组抗体技术构建人噬菌体抗体基因库，筛选获得人源抗呼吸道合胞病毒（RSV）Fab段基因并在原核细胞中表达。为研制安全、有效的预防和治疗RSV感染的制剂奠定基础。方法从RSV感染患儿恢复期外周血淋巴细胞中提取细胞总RNA，用一组人IgGF出特异性引物，通过RT—PCR扩增得到一组轻链（κ和λ）和重链Fab段基因，并将此轻链和重链基因片段克隆于pComb3噬菌体载体，电转化XL1-Blu菌构建成抗RSV噬菌体抗体基因库。用纯化病毒颗粒作抗原对此抗体库进行了富集筛选，得到了特异性针对RSV的人源单克隆抗体Fab段基因，并在大肠杆菌中获得有效表达。用ELISA方法检测了此Fab抗体的抗原特异性，并对阳性克隆进行了基因序列分析。结果所构建的抗体库库容为108，从此抗体库中筛选得到的阳性克隆所表达的Fab抗体能与RSV纯化抗原特异性结合，保留了对RSV的抗原特异性。核苷酸序列分析证实，所获得的阳性克隆基因为人源IgG基因。结论本实验获得了特异性抗RSVFab抗体基因并在大肠杆菌中获得表达，表达产物能与RSV抗原特异性结合。     

The apoptosis of neutrophils is accelerated in respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-induced bronchiolitis

Neutrophils are the predominant inflammatory cell in the lung tissues and airways in RSV infection, and can augment the epithelial cell damage induced by RSV. Neutrophil apoptosis has been suggested to be a mechanism to reduce the potential for tissue injury. The apoptosis of neutrophils from nasopharyngeal aspirates (NPA) (n = 19) and peripheral blood (PB) of infants with RSV bronchiolitis (n = 11) and PB from healthy controls (n = 9) was investigated. Monoclonal antibody against CD95 (Fas) and a binding protein Annexin V were used to determine the apoptosis of neutrophils. The expression of CD11b and CD18 on neutrophils was also detected with flow cytometry. The mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of CD95 on neutrophils from RSV⁺ NPA was increased compared with cells from control PB (73.6 ± 7.6 versus 31.5 ± 4.3); the MFI of Annexin V, CD11b and CD18 on neutrophils from RSV⁺ NPA was up-regulated compared with cells from both control PB (105.3 ± 18.1 versus 11.8 ± 1.5; 1683 ± 153.3 versus 841.1 ± 72.3; 517 ± 50.5 versus 147 ± 8.7, respectively) and RSV⁺ PB (105.3 ± 18.1 versus 35.8 ± 4.1; 1683 ± 153.3 versus 818 ± 141.2; 517 ± 50.5 versus 260 ± 25.8, respectively). Furthermore, the percentage of neutrophils expressing Annexin V and the MFI of CD18 on neutrophils from RSV⁺ PB were increased compared with neutrophils from control PB. In addition, both CD11b (MFI) and CD18 (MFI) correlated with Annexin V (MFI) on neutrophils. We conclude that neutrophil apoptosis in RSV bronchiolitis is accelerated; and CD11b/CD18 may play an important role in RSV infection by influencing neutrophil apoptosis.     

呼吸道合胞病毒M2-1蛋白多克隆抗体的制备

目的:制备呼吸道合胞病毒(RSV)M2-1蛋白多克隆抗体, 为进一步研究RSV生物学特性奠定基础。方法:纯化RSV M2-1蛋白, 免疫新西兰家兔, Western blot检测M2-1多克隆抗体效价。结果:Western blot检测可见约48 kD的特异性条带, M2-1蛋白多克隆效价为1:1000。　结论：本实验成功的地制备了RSV M2-1蛋白多克隆抗体。     

Prevalence and genetic characterization of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in hospitalized children in Korea

Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is the most common respiratory pathogen among infants and young children. To investigate the prevalence and genetic characteristics of HRSVs circulating in South Korea, we analyzed medical records of patients and performed molecular analysis of the G-protein gene of viruses detected from nasopharyngeal aspirates (NPA) of admitted patients at the Pediatrics Department of Chungbuk National University Hospital from April 2008 to April 2010. Epidemiological data revealed that the prevalence of HRSV infection was high during both winter seasons (October 2008 to February 2009 and November 2009 to February 2010). Of the 297 positive NPA specimens from infants or children tested, 67% were identified as HRSV-A while 33% were HRSV-B. The HRSV subgroup B was the most dominant in December 2008, but its dominance was dramatically replaced by HRSV subgroup A strains by February 2009. Phylogenetic analysis of the G protein sequences of HRSVs revealed novel genotypes within the HRSV-A (genotype CB-A) and B (genotypes BA11 and CB-B) subgroups in South Korea in addition to other strains identified in other countries. Molecular analysis also revealed genetic variability at the C-terminal end of the G proteins of the two HRSV subgroups, suggesting selection pressure in this region, which may potentially impact immune recognition. This is the first report of these HRSV variants in South Korea, indicating active genetic evolution of HRSV strains. Therefore, this study provides information on the molecular epidemiology of current HRSVs in the country and presents data for comparative analysis with other HRSV strains circulating worldwide.     

呼吸道合胞病毒G蛋白基因重组质粒诱导小鼠免疫保护性及机制研究

目的 构建编码呼吸道合胞病毒(RSV)G蛋白基因的重组质粒,观察其对RSV感染小鼠的保护性及特异性免疫效应,为研制安全有效的RSV新疫苗提供线索和实验依据.方法 利用基因重组方法构建含RSV G蛋白编码基因的重组质粒,测序和酶切鉴定,Western blot检测目的 基因经体外表达后的免疫原性.重组质粒免疫小鼠后以RSV感染,病毒滴定法检测肺组织标本中RSV滴度,HE染色法检查肺组织病理改变,ELISA检测血清抗体水平,双抗体夹心ELISA测定肺泡灌洗液(BALF)内Th1/Th2细胞因子表达量,流式细胞术检测BALF中T淋巴细胞亚群数量及活化状态.结果 成功构建了编码RSV G蛋白基因的重组质粒pcDNA3.1~G.Western blot证实目的 蛋白在体外具有免疫原性.被免疫小鼠感染RSV后肺组织病毒滴度降低,肺组织中未见明显的炎性细胞浸润.小鼠血清中产生较高滴度的抗RSV-G IgG.小鼠BALF细胞中CD4~+CD25~+T淋巴细胞比例显著增加,并且IFN-γ(Th1)、IL-4(Th2)两类细胞因子表达显示平衡.结论 编码RSV G蛋白基因的重组质粒pcDNA3.1~G能诱导产生CD4~+ CD25~+T细胞亚群,对小鼠具有明显的保护作用.     

Clustered charge-to-alanine mutagenesis of human respiratory syncytial virus L polymerase generates temperature-sensitive viruses

Clustered charge-to-alanine mutagenesis was performed on the large (L) polymerase protein of human respiratory syncytial virus to identify charged residues in the L protein that are important for viral RNA synthesis and to generate temperature-sensitive viruses. Clusters of three, four, and five charged residues throughout the entire L protein were substituted with alanines. A minigenome replicon assay was used to determine the functions of the mutant L proteins and to identify mutations that caused temperature sensitivity by comparing the level of reporter gene expression at 39 and 33 degrees C. Charge-to-alanine mutations were introduced into an antigenomic cDNA derived from RSV A2 strain to recover infectious viruses. Of the 27 charge-to-alanine mutations, 17 recombinant viruses (63%) were obtained. Seven mutants (41%) exhibited small plaque morphologies and/or temperature-sensitive growth in tissue culture. To generate mutant viruses with more temperature-sensitive and attenuated phenotypes, several clusters of charge-to-alanine substitutions were combined. Five combination mutants were recovered that exhibited shut-off temperatures ranging from 36 to 39 degrees C in tissue culture and restricted replication in the respiratory tracts of cotton rats.     

Virus-induced complement activation and neutrophil-mediated cytotoxicity against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).

Complement-dependent neutrophil-mediated cytotoxicity (CDNC) was determined by specific release of 51-chromium (51Cr) from respiratory syncytial virus infected HEp2 cells in a microcytotoxicity assay. There was significant release of 51Cr from RSV infected cells as compared to uninfected cells in the presence of complement (C) and neutrophils (PMN). The degree of cytotoxicity was dependent upon the concentration of C used in the assay. Such cytotoxicity was effectively abolished after heat-inactivation of complement. Complement deficient in C4 did not induce cytotoxicity. Similarly, inhibitors of C1 or C3 blocked CDNC. The maximal CDNC was observed at 37 degrees C with little or no response at 4 degrees C. Lymphocytes and monocytes mediated complement-dependent cytotoxicity very poorly in comparison to PMN. Evidence of complement activation by infected cells was demonstrated by the detection of C3 fixed to RSV infected cells by indirect immunofluorescence. Treatment of C with EDTA or heat prevented subsequent attachment of C3 to the infected cells. These in vitro observations suggest an initial activation of complement by RSV infected cells and subsequent lysis by PMN. It is proposed that this process may play a role in the elimination of virus in the early phase of infection in the absence of specific antibody or sensitized lymphocytes.     

Influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccines for infants: Safety,immunogenicity, and efficacy

Respiratory viral infections in infants and young children frequently cause illness that can easily progress to hospitalization and death. There are currently no licensed vaccines to prevent respiratory viral disease in children younger than 6 months, reflecting safety concerns and the difficulty in inducing effective immune responses in infants. This review discusses vaccines that have been developed, or are currently being developed, against influenza and respiratory syncytial virus, with a focus on studies performed to demonstrate their safety and efficacy, and the impact of immunologic immaturity and maternal antibodies on the infant response to vaccines.     

Detection of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infected cells by in situ hybridization in the lungs of cotton rats immunized with formalin-inactivated virus or purified RSV F and G glycoprotein subunit vaccine and challenged with RSV

The replication of RSV in unimmunized cotton rats was evaluated by quantitating the amount of infectious virus in the lung and the number of RSV infected cells in a histopathological section of lung by in situ hybridization. RSV infected cells were detected only in alveoli and bronchioles and constituted only a small minority of the cell population. The temporal patterns of rise to the peak number of infected cells (day 4) and the peak titer of infectious virus (day 3) were similar. The clearance of both infected cells and infectious virus was nearly complete by day 7. In animals previously immunized with purified RSV glycoproteins or formalin-inactivated RSV there also was a good correlation between the number of infected cells detected by in situ hybridization and the amount of infectious virus recovered. It was previously demonstrated that cotton rats immunized with formalin-inactivated vaccine developed enhanced pulmonary histopathology following challenge with RSV. In such animals, there was approximately a 90% reduction in the number of infected cells compared to control unimmunized, RSV-challenged animals. Formalin-inactivated RSV vaccine-enhanced lung histopathology developed despite the effective elimination of virus and virus-infected cells suggesting that the enhanced pathology is the result of an exaggeration of normal immune mechanisms involved in clearance of virus infection, an aberrant immune response during infection, or both.     

Cytokines and chemokines in respiratory secretion and severity of disease in infants with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection.

BACKGROUND: little is known about inflammatory mediators (IM); like cytokines, chemokines and receptors; in respiratory secretion as possible indicators of the severity of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) disease. Nor have systematic studies been published on the ratios between IM as such indicators. OBJECTIVE: to define the role of IM ratios as possible indicators of the severity of RSV disease. STUDY DESIGN: about 46 infants aged 0-9 months with acute RSV infections were studied. Prematurity (PM) and/or underlying disease (UD) were present in 11 of them. The concentrations of seven different IM were measured by ELISA in samples of nasopharyngeal secretions (NPS), four cytokines; IL-1, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-alpha; the cytokine receptor TNF-R1 and the chemokines; IL-8 and RANTES. 21 IM ratios were calculated from these concentrations. The patients were assigned a clinical score (CS) ranging from 0 to 3 according to the severity of disease. RESULTS: when 25 patients with severe disease (CS 2-3) and 21 patients with mild disease (CS 0-1) were compared with respect to different IM ratios, three ratios were related to severity of disease: IL-1/RANTES, IL-8/RANTES and TNF-R1/RANTES. When 12 patients with mild disease were compared with 16 patients with severe disease, omitting patients more than 5 months of age and patients with PM and/or UD, the following IM ratios were related to severity of disease: TNF-R1/RANTES, IL-8/RANTES and RANTES/IL-10. CONCLUSION: of 21 IM ratios studied, TNF-R1/RANTES was related to severity of disease with greatest consistency.