The sphenopalatine artery: a surgical challenge in epistaxis

Knowledge on the anatomy of the sphenopalatine artery (SPA) and its branches is fundamental for the success of the endoscopic treatment of posterior epistaxis. However, the complex anatomical variations seen in the irrigation of the nasal cavity poses a significant surgical challenge.Objective: This paper aims to describe the endoscopic anatomy of the SPA in human cadavers.Materials and Methods: This is a contemporary cross-sectional cohort study carried out between April 2010 and August 2011. The presence of the ethmoidal crest on the lamina perpendicular to the palatine bone and the location of the principal sphenopalatine foramen (PSF) and the accessory sphenopalatine foramen (ASF) were analyzed in 28 cadavers, and the branches emerging from the foramens were counted.Results: Fifty-six nasal fossae were analyzed. The ethmoidal crest was present in 96% of the cases and was located anteriorly to the PSF in most cases. The PSF was located in the transition area between the middle and the superior meatus in all cases. The ASF was seen in 12 cases. Most nasal fossae (n = 12) presented a single bilateral arterial trunk emerging from the PSF. In other cases, three (n = 8) or two (n = 5) arterial trunks emerged bilaterally from the PSF. In most cases, the SPA emerged as a single trunk from the ASP.Conclusions: The anatomy of the SPA is highly variable. The success of the treatment for severe epistaxis relies heavily on adequate knowledge of the possible anatomical variations of the sphenopalatine artery.     

Surgical anatomy of the sphenopalatine artery in lateral nasal wall

OBJECTIVE: We investigated the surgical anatomy of the sphenopalatine artery. First, the location of the sphenopalatine foramen on the lateral nasal wall and the pattern of the main branches of the sphenopalatine artery from the sphenopalatine artery were studied. Second, the course of the posterior lateral nasal artery with respect to the posterior wall of the maxillary sinus, the perpendicular plate of the palatine bone, and the pattern of distribution of its branches on the fontanelle was determined. Third, the distribution pattern on the inferior turbinate was analyzed. STUDY DESIGN: Fifty midsagittal sections of randomly selected Korean adult cadaver heads with intact sphenoid sinus and surrounding structures were used in the study. METHODS: The mucosa on the sphenopalatine foramen and its surrounding mucosa were removed with a microscissors, a fine forceps, and a pick to expose the sphenopalatine artery under an operating microscope (original magnification x6). RESULTS: The feeding vessels of the superior turbinate were from the septal artery in 36 cases (72%). The feeding vessels to the middle turbinate branch originated from the proximal portion of the posterior lateral nasal artery just after exiting the sphenopalatine foramen in 44 cases (88%). Some portion of the posterior lateral nasal artery ran anterior to the posterior wall of the maxillary sinus in 38%. The major feeding arteries to the fontanelle were from the inferior turbinate branch in 25 cases (50%). In most cases, the inferior turbinate branch was the end artery of the posterior lateral nasal artery (98%). CONCLUSIONS: The study provides detailed information concerning the sphenopalatine artery, which we hope will help explain the arterial bleeding that may occur during ethmoidectomy, middle meatal antrostomy, conchotomy, and endoscopic ligation of the sphenopalatine artery.     

Endoscopic anatomy of the sphenopalatine and posterior nasal arteries: implications for the endoscopic management of epistaxis

BACKGROUND: Refractory posterior epistaxis is a challenge for otolaryngologists. Most algorithms for managing this condition ultimately call for interrupting the arterial blood supply to the nasal mucosa. Traditionally, this was accomplished either by transantral arterial ligation or by arteriographic-guided embolization. More recently, the endonasal endoscopic approach has also been described. Because the primary blood supply to the posterior nasal cavity is derived from the terminal branches of the sphenopalatine and the posterior nasal arteries, we conducted this anatomic study to examine and describe the anatomic relationship of these two arteries as they exit the pterygopalatine fossa and enter the nasal cavity. METHODS: We performed endoscopic dissections of this anatomic region in nine fresh and one formalin-preserved cadaver specimens. A total of 19 sides were examined. RESULTS: In 3 of 19 specimens (16%), the sphenopalatine artery branched from the sphenopalatine artery within the sphenopalatine canal, allowing the two arteries to exit together. In 8 of the 19 specimens (42%), the sphenopalatine artery exited much more posteriorly, yet from within a shared posteriorly elongated sphenopalatine foramen. In the remaining eight specimens (42%), the sphenopalatine artery exited through a distinct foramen directly posterior to the larger sphenopalatine foramen. CONCLUSION: Understanding this anatomic relationship is important in performing endoscopic arterial ligation. If the sphenopalatine artery is not specifically identified and ligated, an important component of the posterior nasal circulation will not be addressed adequately by this surgical approach.     

Severe posterior epistaxis-endoscopic surgical anatomy

OBJECTIVE: To describe the anatomy of the sphenopalatine foramen (SPF) region and possible anatomical variations. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective study accomplished from September, 2006, to January, 2007. METHODS: The sphenopalatine foramen (SPF) of 61 cadavers were carefully dissected. Presence of the ethmoidal crest, location of sphenopalatine and accessory foramens, and the number of arterial branches emerging through foramens were observed. Data were analyzed in relation to gender, racial group, and symmetry of the cadaver. Prediction of the presence of accessory foramen was evaluated. RESULTS: Mixed race cadavers prevailed in 122 nasal fossae dissected (75% males). Ethmoidal crest was present in 100% of the cadavers, being anterior to the SPF in 98.4% of the cases. The most frequent SPF location was the transition of the middle and superior meatus (86.9%). Mean distance from the SPF and accessory foramen to anterior nasal spine was 6.6 cm and 6.7 cm, respectively. Accessory foramen was present in 9.83% of the cases. A single arterial stem emerged through the SPF in 67.2% of the cases, and 100% through accessory foramens. The prevalence analyses showed no differences that were statistically significant (P > 0.05) between gender and racial group. The symmetry analyses showed a strong conformity (P < 0.01) between nasal fossae in relation to the SPF location. There was no statistically significant conformity between nasal fossae and accessory foramen (P = 0.53). None of the variables of interest presents any statistically significant (P > 0.05) association with the presence of the accessory foramen. CONCLUSIONS: There are anatomical variations in the lateral nose wall that should be considered for successful endoscopic surgical treatment of severe epistaxis.     

难治性鼻出血患者出血部位各年龄段间的差异与特点

目的　探讨难治性鼻出血位点与年龄相关的分布特点及规律。方法　回顾性分析住院治疗的149例难治性鼻出血患者的临床资料,按年龄分为青年组（≤39岁）、中年组（40～59岁）、老年组（≥60岁）,分析其出血部位的特点及规律。结果　149例患者中,男性110例,女性39例;年龄 18～87岁,平均（53±14）岁;青年组36例,中年组52例,老年组61例。149例患者均行鼻内镜下鼻腔探查止血术。其中明确出血部位后行电凝止血或微填塞145例,并记录出血部位;未明确出血部位患者4例。三组患者最常见出血部位依次为：青年组：下鼻道穹窿22例（61%）,中鼻甲后段13例（36.1%）,嗅裂区中隔面1例（2.7%）;中年组：下鼻道穹窿23例（44.2%）,中鼻甲后段10例（19.2%）,嗅裂区中隔面17例（32.7%）;老年组：嗅裂区中隔面37例（60.6%）,中鼻甲后段15例（24.6%）,下鼻道穹窿7例（11.5%）。结论  难治性鼻出血患者中,青、中年患者出血部位以蝶腭动脉分支出血居多;老年患者出血部位以筛前动脉、筛后动脉分支出血居多。随年龄增长蝶腭动脉分支出血比例减少,筛前动脉、筛后动脉分支出血机会增加。     

鼻内镜下鼻后神经丛解剖研究

目的 探讨鼻内镜下鼻后神经丛(PNNP)的构成及分布特点,为后续行鼻内镜下高选择性PNNP切断术提供解剖学参考。方法 利用5具(10侧)冰鲜尸头灌注标本,经内镜下中鼻道入路,解剖蝶腭孔周围区域内结构;利用5具人体标本解剖前接受的鼻窦CT扫描结果,经影像学工具测量相应结构间距离。利用内镜系统采集解剖图像,影像测量软件获取影像学数据,并由资深放射科医师盲法测量。在解剖过程中,寻找蝶腭孔周围区域重要解剖标志及各结构间的毗邻关系。去除腭骨蝶突及蝶骨鞘突骨质,开放骨性腭鞘管,暴露PNNP咽支,在腭鞘管前口外侧探查定位翼管神经。结果 PNNP出蝶腭孔后均存在3个主要分支与蝶腭动脉分支血管伴行,前下方有与蝶腭鼻后外侧支伴行的鼻腔外侧壁支,后上方有与上鼻甲动脉伴行的上鼻甲支,后内侧有与鼻后中隔动脉伴行的鼻中隔支,蝶腭神经节在翼腭窝内即发出咽支,未穿出蝶腭孔,通过腭鞘管进入鼻咽部,且翼管前口均位于腭鞘管前口的外侧。腭鞘管前口外侧壁至翼管前口内侧壁间距,内镜下测量值(5.90±1.12)mm,影像学测量值(6.30±1.06)mm。结论 通过解剖定位腭鞘管,开放骨性腭鞘管,暴露其中的PNNP咽支,探讨腭鞘管前口与翼管前口之间的位置关系及术中规避翼管神经及蝶腭神经节的安全操作范围,为变应性鼻炎精准手术治疗提供解剖依据。     

鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉区的外科解剖

目的探讨鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉区的解剖学特点。方法采用鼻内镜对10例(20侧鼻腔)经10%福尔马林溶液固定的正常成人尸头标本的蝶腭动脉及其与相关结构的关系进行解剖,观察蝶腭孔定位,筛骨嵴的形态、大小及其与蝶腭孔的关系;测量筛骨嵴与前鼻棘的间距以及筛骨嵴与中鼻甲尾端的间距,观察蝶腭动脉分支及其走行。结果筛骨嵴略呈三角棘状骨性结构,表面粗糙,位于蝶腭孔的前上方。去除筛骨嵴后可见蝶腭动脉血管束从蝶腭孔中穿出,蝶腭动脉常有2~3支不等分支。筛骨嵴与前鼻棘间距为(50.1±2.6)mm,筛骨嵴与中鼻甲尾端的间距为(9.1±1.1)mm。结论蝶腭动脉在出蝶腭孔之前可能有分支;筛骨嵴位置固定,是经鼻内镜下定位蝶腭动脉及蝶腭孔的重要解剖标志。     

The anatomy of the sphenopalatine artery for the endoscopic sinus surgeon

BACKGROUND: This study was performed to determine the variations in the branching pattern of the sphenopalatine artery medial to the crista ethmoidalis. Seventy-seven cadaver head sides that had been sectioned sagittally in the midline with their septum removed were used after injecting pink latex to highlight the arterial vessels. METHODS: The mucosa from the middle meatus from the level of the basal lamella was removed until the artery and its branches were seen and then was examined under the microscope to identify the position of the arterial branches. RESULTS: The sphenopalatine artery and its branches were identified in 75 specimens. Of these 75 specimens, 73 (97%) had 2 or more branches medial to the crista ethmoidalis, 49 (67%) had 3 or more branches, 26 (35%) had 4 or more branches, and 1 specimen had 10 branches. In two specimens the artery presented as a single trunk. CONCLUSION: The sphenopalatine artery normally starts to branch lateral to the crista ethmoidalis and these branches vary widely. It is important that the surgeon who undertakes ligation or cautery of the artery is aware of these variations, otherwise they may overlook some of the branches. With an endoscopic approach, removal of the crista ethmoidalis helps visualize these branches.     

鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉银夹夹闭术治疗顽固性鼻出血

目的探讨鼻内镜下定位游离蝶腭动脉并以银夹夹闭治疗顽固性鼻出血的方法。方法对22例经反复鼻腔填塞及鼻内镜下电凝术治疗后仍有顽固性鼻腔后部出血的患者于全麻或局麻下行鼻内镜检查,在中鼻甲后端附着部纵向切开黏骨膜,寻找蝶腭孔并充分解剖蝶腭动脉主干及分支,以1～2枚银夹夹闭,复位黏骨膜瓣并填塞止血纱布和膨胀海绵。结果随访6—36个月,平均23个月。20例未再出血,2例分别于术后第6个月和9个月再次同侧筛动脉出血,经鼻内镜下电凝及填塞压迫止血后痊愈。结论鼻内镜下解剖蝶腭动脉并以银夹夹闭治疗顽固性鼻出血,方法简单,疗效确切,值得临床推广。     

Practical aspects regarding endoscopic treatment for epistaxis

IntroductionA prospective study is presented to evaluate some practical and financial aspects regarding surgical endoscopic ligation or cauterization of sphenopalatine (SP) and anterior ethmoidal (AE) arteries performed to control posterior nasal bleedingPatients and methods35 patients admitted at the ENT ward between 2004 and 2006 were included in the study, and distributed into two groups depending on the protocol applied in each case. Until March 2005 the surgery was performed if there was failure or insecurity of the posterior packing, and since that date a substitutive surgical protocol (not including posterior packing) was appliedResults82.9% of the patients were male, with a mean age of 55.74 years and a left bleeding in a 60% of the cases. Ligature/cauterization was performed on SP in 28 (80%) patients, on AE in 4 (11.4%), and on both arteries in 3 cases (8.6%). 38.7% of the SP approach only one sphenopalatine foramen was observed, through which an only branch of the artery passed; 42% of the cases two branches passed through an only foramen, and in 19.3% two or more branches were present, breaking into the nose through two or more independent clefts. AE was intradural in 3 cases, intranasal attached to the cranial base in other 3 and intranasal detached to the cranial base in 1 patient. Besides, highly significant differences were found between the two protocols, observing a mean reduction of hospital stay of 3.1 days, which throws up savings of 939.3 euros per patientDiscussion and conclusionsSurgical treatment for epistaxis has proved to be effective (91.2% in our experience) and safe, determining an important reduction in hospital stay and avoiding the morbility of posterior packing. Accurate knowledge of the anatomy of the arteries implied and specific actuation upon the correct bleeding territory areessential to perform this surgery     

Transantral sphenopalatine artery ligation

Posterior epistnxis from branches of the sphenopalatine artery can be rapidly and effectively controlled by a new ligation technique. The sphenopalatine artery or its branches arc directly ligated as they exit the sphenopalatine foramen to enter the nose, completely avoiding the pterygomaxillary fossa. The vessels are exposed via a transantral approach, through the posterior portion of the medial antral wall. The mucoperiosteum of the lateral wall of the nose (medial antral wall) is preserved, elevated medially and posteriorly and used to tense the sphenopalatine vessels, bringing them into view and accessible for ligation at the foramen. Advantages of this technique include direct, specific ligation of the end vessels; ease and speed of operation; and avoidance of complications associated with the pterygomaxillary space. The technique was defined in multiple dissections of anatomic specimens and has been successful to date in 14 cases of severe posterior epistaxis.     

Posterior epistaxis: endonasal exposure and occlusion of the branches of the sphenopalatine artery

Intractable posterior epistaxis (PE) is a frequent emergency for which different treatment modalities are available. While nasal packing causes extreme discomfort and angiography with consecutive selective embolization is not available everywhere, recent studies emphasize the value of sphenopalatine artery (SPA) occlusion by different techniques and indicate success rates of 13-33%. In our institution, previously endoscopic management of PE consisted either of isolated coagulation of an identified bleeding source (group A) or cutting and coagulation of arterial branches running through the sphenopalatine foramen (SPF) (group B). According to our neuroradiological and rhinological experience we developed a modification of SPA transsection and coagulation following identification of the division in conchal and septal branches of the SPA (group C). During a 26-month period the success rates of these three techniques in 95 patients were compared prospectively. The three modalities revealed a re-bleeding rate of 3 out of 21 (21%) in group A, 1 in 6 (16.7%) in group B and 3 in 69 (4.3%) in group C. At the level of the SPF, 36 out of 69 patients had one conchal branch, whereas 30 (43.5%) had two and 3 (4.4%) had three. If SPA transsection and coagulation for intractable PE is adopted the anatomic varieties of the SPA with its division in conchal and septal branches have to be taken into account. According to our experience the septal branch of the SPA plays a major role in PE. Its occlusion significantly improves the success rate of PE treatment.     

Combined internal maxillary and anterior ethmoidal arterial occlusion: the treatment of choice in intractable epistaxis.

Whilst it is generally accepted that the standard management for anterior or benign epistaxis is either cautery or anterior nasal packing, that of posterior or intractable epistaxis remains controversial. Various modalities of treatment, ranging from posterior nasal packing to arterial ligation and embolization, have been advocated but none have been unanimously accepted as the treatment of choice. The purpose of this paper was to determine the efficacy of internal maxillary arterial ligation versus combined internal maxillary arterial ligation and anterior ethmoid arterial coagulation in intractable epistaxis. Over a six year period, from 1985 to 1990, 454 patients were admitted and treated for epistaxis. Forty-seven patients were diagnosed as having intractable epistaxis on the basis that the epistaxis failed to settle on anterior nasal packing. They were moved to the next step in management, which was combined anterior and posterior nasal packing. There were 30 failures, one was found to have choriocarcinoma of the maxilla, and was treated with cytotoxics, and the other 29 were moved to the next step, which was arterial ligation. Fifteen patients had internal maxillary arterial ligation, and 14 combined internal maxillary arterial ligation and anterior ethmoidal arterial coagulation. Large windows were created in both the anterior and posterior walls of the maxillary sinuses and all identifiable branches of the internal maxillary artery were dissected out carefully and two medium size ligating clips were placed over the main trunk, the sphenopalatine and the descending palatine branches. Single clips were placed on all other identifiable branches. Coagulation of the anterior ethmoidal artery was performed with a bipolar cautery.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉电凝术治疗顽固性鼻出血

目的：探讨应用鼻内镜行蝶腭动脉电凝术治疗顽固性鼻出血的方法与疗效。方法：对20例顽固性鼻出血患者于全身麻醉后鼻内镜下,根据解剖标志,于中鼻甲后端区域寻找到蝶腭孔,充分游离其中的蝶腭动脉,用双极电凝烧灼后切断,局部黏膜复位后小块膨胀海绵压迫。结果：随访5～20个月,平均10个月。全部患者无再次出血,1例发生鼻腔轻度粘连。结论：鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉电凝术治疗顽固性鼻出血疗效确切,手术微创,是治疗顽固性鼻出血的可靠方法。     

鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉电凝术治疗严重后段鼻出血

目的 评价鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉电凝术治疗严重后段鼻出血的疗效。方法 对25例后鼻孔填塞治疗无效的鼻出血住院患者,行鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉电凝术,其中24例全身麻醉,1例局部麻醉。25例中有2例患者同时行双侧蝶腭动脉电凝术。结果 术中所有蝶腭动脉均能明确识别,并在出蝶腭孔处将其成功电凝。22例术后未再出血;1例术后6h再次出血,经后鼻孔填塞2d后出血治愈;2例术后当天轻微鼻出血,药物治疗后停止。出院后随访3~6个月,患者均无再次鼻出血,除2例出现轻度鼻腔黏连外无其他并发症。结论 鼻内镜下蝶腭动脉电凝术治疗严重后段鼻出血是一种安全、有效的治疗方法。     

Sphenopalatine artery ligation: technical note

Epistaxis is a common problem. Most patients presenting to hospital will stop bleeding with simple first-aid measures or with nasal packing. Those who do not stop will usually require surgical management. For persistent posterior epistaxis, the sphenopalatine artery may be ligated as the artery leaves the sphenopalatine foramen to enter the nasal mucosa of the lateral wall of the nose. This may be performed endoscopically. We describe the anatomy of the area and the surgical technique. We also present a brief review of the literature on this technique.     

Endoscopic electrosurgical management of posterior epistaxis: shifting paradigm

Recent literature has embraced the use of electrosurgery, sphenopalatine vascular clipping, and endoscopy in posterior epistaxis. With the advent of endoscopy, the surgical treatment of posterior epistaxis has shifted from internal maxillary ligation to endoscopic sphenopalatine artery control. This article introduces an endoscopic electrosurgical approach for patients suffering from idiopathic posterior epistaxis that combines one or more of the following methods: endoscopic selective branch cauterization, endoscopic sphenopalatine artery cautery, and endoscopic posterior nasal cauterization. This approach is currently used in a hospital-based community otolaryngology practice and is presented from a Canadian health care perspective (Quebec). This article presents the experience in a series of 17 patients treated during a 35-month period and prospectively followed and discusses the surgical technique, patients' outcome, and the implications of such a practice.     

蝶腭孔的显微解剖学研究

目的 :通过对尸颅蝶腭孔的测量和观察 ,为经鼻内镜蝶腭孔相关手术提供解剖学依据。方法 :应用显微解剖学方法对 4 0侧正中线切开的尸颅蝶腭孔进行了位置、形状、大小及毗邻关系的观察与有关数据的测量。结果 :将蝶腭孔分成 3类 ,Ⅰ类 :孔位于上鼻甲、上鼻道的后方 ,Ⅱ类 :孔位于中鼻甲或中鼻道的后端 ,Ⅲ类 :Ⅰ类加Ⅱ类。各类分别占 35 %、5 %、6 0 %。孔上缘与蝶窦底间距离男 (1.75± 1.10 )mm ,女 (1.13± 0 .5 5 )mm ,与蝶窦口距离男 (9.80± 3.2 7)mm ,女 (8.30± 3.4 5 )mm ,孔的后缘与鼻咽部距离男 (11.12± 3.30 )mm ,女 (10 .85± 3.12 )mm ,孔的前缘与上颌窦口距离男 (18.5 0± 6 .‘80 )mm ,女 (14 .5 7± 5 .0 7)mm ,与鼻尖距离男 (6 9.5 4± 6 .98)mm ,女(6 6 .5 7± 5 .0 7)mm ,与前鼻棘距离男 (5 6 .6 9± 5 .70 )mm ,女 (5 3.2 5± 8.80 )mm ,以蝶腭孔中心点为准前后径女(4 .6 1± 1.80 )mm ,男 (5 .12± 2 .0 5 )mm ,上下径男 (5 .37± 2 .6 7)mm ,女 (4 .74± 2 .74 )mm ,与硬腭水平板的夹角男(2 2 .83± 4 .71)°,女 (2 2 .73± 3.81)°。蝶腭动脉外径男 (2 .12± 0 .6 6 )mm ,女 (1.6 1± 0 .70 )mm ,蝶腭神经外径男(0 .6 5± 0 .4 9)mm ,女 (0 .35± 0 .0 7)mm。鼻腔外侧壁的血供及