Bilateral pressure pain sensitivity mapping of the temporalis muscle in chronic tension-type headache

Purpose.— To analyze pressure pain sensitivity maps in chronic tension-type headache (CTTH) and healthy controls over nine locations covering the temporalis muscle.
Background.— Lower pressure pain thresholds (PPT) have been found in craniofacial muscles in patients with CTTH. Since the temporalis muscle can play a relevant role in the genesis or maintenance of headache, the determination of pressure pain sensitivity maps of this muscle is needed.
Methods.— A pressure algometer was used to measure PPT over 9 points of the temporalis muscle (3 points in the anterior part of the muscle, another 3 in the middle of the muscle, and the remaining 3 in the posterior part) in 15 females suffering from CTTH and 10 healthy women. A pressure pain sensitivity map of both dominant and nondominant sides in patients and controls was calculated.
Results.— Chronic tension-type headache patients showed lower PPT as compared with healthy subjects ( P  < .01). Further, PPT levels of the nondominant side were lower than those on the dominant side for controls ( P  < .01). Within the CTTH group, more bilaterally homogeneous pressure pain sensitivity maps with PPT decreased from the posterior to anterior column were found, whereas among controls, PPT distribution maps were inhomogeneous with side-to-side differences.
Conclusions.— Our data may provide preliminary new key information about muscle sensitivity, since it seems that pressure pain sensitivity maps could be different between CTTH patients and healthy subjects. Further studies with greater sample sizes and other headache populations are now required to confirm our results.     

The effectiveness of manipulation and mobilization on pain and disability in individuals with cervicogenic and tension-type headaches: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: Cervicogenic (CGH) and tension-type (TTH) headaches are prevalent conditions that are associated with considerable pain and disability. Joint mobilization and manipulation are common interventions used by physical therapists to manage individuals with musculoskeletal conditions. However, there is controversy surrounding their effectiveness.

Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness of mobilization and manipulation (MM) compared to other conservative treatments on reducing pain, frequency, and disability in patients with CGH and TTH.

Methods: A literature search using terms related to mobilization, manipulation, CGH, and TTH was conducted to identify randomized clinical trials comparing MM to conservative treatment in treating CGH and TTH. The overall quality of the evidence was assessed using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. Meta-analysis and qualitative synthesis of the evidence were performed.

Results: Nine total studies were included in the systematic review. The majority of studies scored lower than a 69% on the Cochrane risk of bias tool indicating a moderate to high risk of bias. MM were found to be equally as effective as conservative treatment in reducing pain, disability, and frequency of headache in individuals with CGH. MM had statistically significant short-term (1–4 weeks) improvements over conservative treatment for TTH on pain and disability, but not frequency. When comparing the effectiveness of MM versus conservative treatment for TTH, both groups exhibited improvement between 1–3 months in all three outcomes.

Conclusions: Manipulation and mobilization were only found to be more effective than conservative care at short-term follow up for individuals with TTH.     

EMG analysis of the late exteroceptive suppression period of temporal muscle activity in episodic and chronic tension-type headaches

EMG analysis of the late exteroceptive suppression period of the temporal muscle activity is discussed as comparative methodology in the assessment of patients suffering from chronic tension-type headache and from migraineurs. After electrical perioral trigeminal nerve stimulation during maximum voluntary jaw occlusion, early (ES1) and late (ES2) exteroceptive suppression periods can be registered above the temples using surface EMG recordings. In patients suffering from chronic tension-type headache the duration of the late suppression period is shortened (p less than 0.001) compared to migraineurs or controls. However, patients suffering from episodic tension-type headache display late suppression periods of temporal muscle activity of differing lengths.     

Patients with chronic tension-type headache demonstrate increased mechano-sensitivity of the supra-orbital nerve

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to establish whether increased sensitivity to mechanical stimuli is present in neural tissues in chronic tension-type headache (CTTH). BACKGROUND: Muscle hyperalgesia is a common finding in CTTH. No previous studies have investigated the sensitivity of peripheral nerves in patients with CTTH. DESIGN: A blinded controlled study. METHODS: Pressure pain thresholds (PPT) and pain intensity following palpation of the supra-orbital nerve (V1) were compared between 20 patients with CTTH and 20 healthy matched subjects. A pressure algometer and numerical pain rate scale were used to quantify PPT and pain to palpation. A headache diary was kept for 4 weeks to substantiate the diagnosis and record the pain history. RESULTS: The analysis of variance demonstrated significantly lower PPT for patients (0.86+/-0.13 kg/cm2) than controls (1.50+/-0.19 kg/cm2) (P<.001). Pain to palpation was also higher for patients (2.73+/-1.58) than controls (0.15+/-0.28) (P<.001).Within the CTTH group, intensity, frequency, and duration of the headaches were negatively correlated with PPT (rsor=0.72; P<.001). CONCLUSIONS: These findings reveal that mechanical hypersensitivity is not limited to muscles but also occurs in cranial nerves, and that the level of sensitization, either due to peripheral or central processes, is related to the severity of the primary headache.     

不同神经阻滞方法治疗颈源性头痛的疗效观察

目的:比较外周神经、颈2横突和二者联合阻滞三种方法治疗颈源性头痛的效果和副作用。方法:按照国际诊断颈源性头痛(CEH)的标准,选择74例头痛患者,随机分3组,分别行外周神经(枕大、枕小或耳大神经)阻滞(25例)、颈2横突注射(24例)和二者的联合治疗(25例),各组使用剂量相等的二丙酸倍他米松与倍他米松磷酸钠(得宝松)1ml与甲钴胺(弥可保注射液)0.5mg溶于0.4%利多卡因,每个穿刺点注射3ml,隔周注射1次,共治疗2次。结果:在治疗后第2周、1个月和3个月的随访中,各组疼痛程度数字评分(NRS)、每周发作次数和每次发作持续时间均较治疗前明显改善(P<0.01),并有随时间推移效果降低的趋势,但组间比较差异无显著性意义。与治疗前外周、颈2和联合组NRS7.38±2.09、6.98±2.18和7.66±1.91相比,治疗后2周时3组的相应NRS为2.38±2.99、3.63±3.62、2.82±2.84;1个月时为3.70±3.32、4.42±3.28、3.32±3.10;3个月时为4.08±2.75、4.85±3.25、4.08±2.75。治疗前后3组颈部活动度(ROM)明显改善,组间区分不明显,但颈项僵硬主观缓解感后两组好于前者(P<0.05)。治疗后即刻在颈2阻滞和联合组出现3例头晕,观察期内3例出现激素副作用。结论:外周神经阻滞、颈2横突注射和二者的联合治疗对于缓解CEH的疼痛程度和颈项僵硬均有显著的疗效,但外周神经阻滞操作更为简单、安全,在三种方法中应为首选。     

Cervical epidural steroid injections in the management of cervical radiculitis: interlaminar versus transforaminal. A review

There has been recent concern regarding the safety of cervical epidural steroid injections. The decision to proceed with treatment requires balancing the risk and benefits. This article is an in depth review of the efficacy, complications, and technique of both interlaminar and transforaminal cervical epidural steroid injections in the management of cervical radiculitis.     

Characteristics of headache in migraine without aura and episodic tension-type headache in the Turkish population according to the IHS classification

We evaluated the characteristics of headache in migraine without aura and episodic tension-type headache diagnosed according to the International Headache Society (IHS) Classification. Fifty migraine without aura and 50 tension-type headache patients were selected prospectively. Fifty-eight percent of migraineurs had pain of a pulsating quality; 88% had severe pain and 74% had unilateral pain; aggravation by routine physical activity was reported by 96%. Episodic tension-type headache was of a pressing quality in 52%, moderate in 40%, bilateral in 82% and aggravated by routine physical activity in 16%. Nausea and/or vomiting, photophobia and phonophobia were reported significantly more commonly in migraineurs than tension-type headache patients.     

Dynamic assessment of abnormalities in central pain transmission and modulation in tension-type headache sufferers

OBJECTIVE: To examine and compare central pain processing and modulation in young tension-type headache sufferers with that of matched healthy controls using an induced headache "challenge" paradigm. BACKGROUND: Recent research has suggested that abnormalities in central pain processing and descending pain modulation may contribute to chronic tension-type headache. These abnormalities, if they contribute to headache pathogenesis, should be present in young adult tension-type headache sufferers. Recent research using static measures of physiological variables, such as muscle tenderness and exteroceptive suppression, has identified chronic muscle tenderness as a characteristic of young tension-type headache sufferers, but other central nervous system functional abnormalities may require a dynamic "challenge" to be observed. METHODS: Twenty-four young women meeting the International Headache Society diagnostic criteria for tension-type headache (headache-prone) and a matched group of 24 healthy women who reported fewer than 10 problem headaches per year (control) participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Subjects completed jaw clenching and a placebo condition on different days in counterbalanced order. Pericranial muscle tenderness, pressure-pain thresholds on the temporalis, and exteroceptive suppression periods were assessed before and after each procedure. Head pain was recorded for 12 to16 hours following each condition. RESULTS: Headache-prone subjects were more likely than controls to experience headaches after both the jaw clenching and placebo procedures, but neither group was significantly more likely to experience headaches following jaw clenching than placebo. In pretreatment measurements, headache-prone subjects exhibited greater muscle tenderness than controls, but pressure-pain detection thresholds and exteroceptive suppression periods did not differ in the two groups. Control subjects showed increases in muscle tenderness and exteroceptive suppression periods following both the clenching and placebo procedures, whereas headache-prone subjects exhibited no significant changes in any of the physiological measures following either experimental manipulation. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm previous findings indicating abnormally high pericranial muscle tenderness in young tension headache sufferers even in the headache-free state. In addition, the results suggest that the development of headaches following noxious stimulation is more strongly related to headache proneness and associated abnormalities in central pain transmission or modulation (indexed by pericranial muscle tenderness and exteroceptive suppression responses) than muscle strain induced by jaw clenching.     

Referred pain from the trochlear region in tension-type headache: a myofascial trigger point from the superior oblique muscle

BACKGROUND: Tension-type headache (TTH) is a prototypical headache in which myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) can play an important role. To our knowledge, MTrPs in the muscle tissues of the trochlear region, ie, the superior oblique muscle (SOM), have not been previously mentioned, and a referred pain pattern from this region has never been reported. OBJECTIVE: To describe the referred pain from the trochlear area based on the examination of MTrPs in the SOM in patients with episodic and chronic TTH (CTTH). DESIGN: A blinded, controlled study. METHODS: The trochlear region was examined in 15 patients with CTTH, 15 patients with episodic TTH (ETTH), and 15 control subjects. Referred pain elicited by different maneuvers performed during manual palpation, ie, maintained pressure, active muscle contraction, and stretching of the muscle, was assessed with a visual analogue scale. Patients with ETTH were examined on days when they were headache-free, whereas CTTH patients were examined on days in which headache intensity was less than 4 points on a 10-cm horizontal visual analogue scale. RESULTS: Eighty-six percent of patients with CTTH and 60% with ETTH had referred pain that originated from MTrPs in the SOM, while only 27% of the controls reported referred pain. This pain was perceived as a deep ache located at the retro-orbital region, sometimes extending to the supra-orbital region or the homo-lateral forehead. Pain intensity was greater in CTTH patients than in ETTH patients or control subjects (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: MTrPs in the SOM may evoke a typical referred pain pattern in patients with TTH. The presence of a myofascial disorder in the trochlear region might contribute to the pathogenesis of TTH.     

Exteroceptive suppression of the masseter, temporalis and trapezius muscles produced by mental nerve stimulation in patients with chronic headaches

Exteroceptive suppression of the masseter, temporalis and trapezius muscles, produced by mental nerve stimulation, was studied in 46 patients with chronic headaches. The background contracting electromyographic activity prior to stimulation showed no difference between normal subjects and patients with any type of headache. In patients with chronic tension-type headache associated with a disorder of the pericranial muscles, the duration and degree of exteroceptive suppression were lower when compared with normal subjects. A low degree of exteroceptive suppression was observed also in patients suffering from migraine without aura, although exteroceptive suppression in patients suffering from migraine with aura and cluster headache was the same as that in normal subjects. A low degree of exteroceptive suppression may play a role not only in chronic tension-type headache associated with a disorder of the pericranial muscles, but also in migraine without aura.     

Pressure pain threshold and pain tolerance in episodic tension-type headache do not depend on the presence of headache

Pressure pain thresholds and responses to painful mechanical stimuli were obtained from 20 subjects with episodic tension-type headaches (TTH). Tender points in the temporalis and trapezius muscles were studied, along with two nontender points, one in the temporalis and one on the Achilles tendon. Two examinations were performed, one during and one without a headache, and results were compared. No significant differences were found in either variable for any tested points. The data demonstrate that the sensitivity level of these points does not differ based on the presence or absence of TTH. This suggests that the muscle sensitivity in TTH is constant. The observation that the sensitivity levels of both tender and nontender points did not vary suggests that the underlying mechanism or effect of TTH is not restricted to tender muscles.     

Disability is the major determinant of the severity of depressive symptoms in primary headaches but not in low back pain

Pain syndromes are often associated with depression. In a prospective study we analysed if determinants of depression differ among patients with different primary headaches and between headaches and non-headache pain. During a 2-year period between 1 February 2002 and 31 January 2004, 635 subjects (migraine n = 231; tension-type headache n = 176; cluster headache n = 11; patients with low back pain n = 103; and healthy subjects n = 114) seen by two neurologists filled in a questionnaire on pain characteristics, the MIDAS questionnaire and the Beck Depression Inventory. A multivariate general regression model was used to identify independent predictors of the severity of depressive symptoms. Pain was most frequent in chronic tension-type headache and most intense in the cluster subgroup (P < 0.001, Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA). In univariate tests gender, age, pain frequency, pain intensity and disability were all significantly associated with the severity of depressive symptoms. In the multivariate model disability was the most important independent determinant of the severity of depressive symptoms in the pooled headache group as well as in the migraine and tension-type headache subgroups. In contrast to patients with headache, pain frequency and pain intensity were the significant independent predictors of the severity of depressive symptoms in patients with low back pain. In a multivariate model, after controlling for other factors, determinants of the severity of depressive symptoms were different in headache and non-headache pain subjects, suggesting a different mechanism for developing depression in primary headaches and in other pain syndromes.     

Use of percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (PENS) in the short-term management of headache

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the short-term effects of percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (PENS) in the management of three types of chronic headache. BACKGROUND: Traditional electroanalgesic therapies have been reported to be effective in the management of acute headache symptoms. However, no controlled studies have been performed in patients with chronic headache. METHODS: Thirty patients with either tension headache, migraine, or posttraumatic headache symptoms of at least 6 months' duration were randomized to receive PENS (needles with electricity) or "needles alone" according to a crossover study design. All treatments were administered for 30 minutes, three times a week for 2 consecutive weeks with 1 week off between the two different treatments. For the PENS treatments, an alternating electrical stimulation frequency of 15 and 30 Hz was used. Pain, activity, and sleep scores were assessed using a 10-cm visual analog scale, with 0 corresponding to the best and 10 to the worst, during the 48-hour period prior to the beginning of the two treatments, immediately before and after each treatment session, and 48 hours after completing each treatment modality. RESULTS: Compared with the needles alone, PENS therapy was significantly more effective in decreasing the overall VAS pain scores for tension-type headache, migraine and posttraumatic headache (58%, 59%, and 52% versus 20%, 15%, and 20%, respectively). Similarly, PENS therapy produced greater improvement in the patients' physical activity (41% to 58% for PENS versus 11% to 21% for needles only) and quality of sleep (41% to 48% for PENS versus 12% to 20% for needles only). However, there were no differences in the pattern of the response to PENS therapy among the three headache groups. CONCLUSIONS: Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation appears to be a useful complementary therapy to analgesic and antimigraine drugs for the short-term management of headache. Interestingly, the analgesic response to PENS therapy appears to be independent of the origin of the headache symptoms.     

罗哌卡因对腰硬联合麻醉下子宫全切术患者运动神经阻滞的影响

目的研究罗哌卡因对腰硬联合麻醉下子宫全切术患者运动神经阻滞的影响。方法收集2014年1月至2015年12月内蒙古自治区妇幼保健医院子宫肿瘤患者108例,将患者随机分为罗哌卡因组和左旋布比卡因组。主要观察指标为术中平均动脉压(MAP)、感觉神经阻滞时间、运动神经阻滞时间和Bromege评分。结果与左旋布比卡因组相比,罗哌卡因组患者运动神经阻滞时间显著缩短[(154.83±35.12)min vs.(190.24±33.06)min,P0.001],Bromege评分显著降低[(2.46±1.06)分vs.(2.89±0.79)分,P=0.02]。两组患者术中各个时间点的MAP、感觉神经阻滞时间、恶心、呕吐和头痛等并发症差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论与左旋布比卡因相比,罗哌卡因在腰硬联合麻醉下子宫全切术中是安全有效的,显著降低了患者运动神经阻滞时间。     

Blood pool scintigraphy of the skull in relation to head-down tilt provocation in patients with chronic tension-type headache and controls

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the mechanisms behind the increase of chronic tension-type headache during head-down tilt. BACKGROUND: The pathophysiology of chronic tension-type headache is unknown. DESIGN AND METHODS: Ten patients suffering from chronic tension-type headache and 10 age- and sex-matched controls were studied with respect to pain intensity and alterations in cranial blood volume using planar scintigraphy and radiolabeled autologous erythrocytes before, during, and after head-down tilt, a procedure known to increase chronic tension-type headache. RESULTS: Four of 8 patients with chronic tension-type headache studied had increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure. During head-down tilt, the pain increased significantly in the group with chronic tension-type headache (P <.001) while the procedure did not cause headache in the controls. Blood volume significantly increased extracranially and decreased intracranially in both groups during head-down tilt. The extracranial nasal blood volume was significantly related to the pain experienced by the patients with chronic tension-type headache before and during head-down tilt. CONCLUSIONS: Although the changes in blood volume and, presumably, the increase of intracranial pressure were similar in the patients with chronic tension-type headache and the controls, only the patients experienced pain and pain increase during head-down tilt. This indicates that the pre-head-down tilt conditions must be different in the 2 groups and should be related to increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure/intracranial venous pressure in patients with chronic tension-type headache compared with controls. A difference in central mechanisms may, however, also be of importance for the difference in headache provocation in the 2 groups during head-down tilt.     

Response to occipital nerve block is not useful in predicting efficacy of occipital nerve stimulation

Occipital nerve stimulation (ONS) may be effective for the treatment of headaches that are recalcitrant to medical therapy. The objective of this study was to determine if response to occipital nerve block (ONB) predicts response to ONS in patients with chronic, medically intractable headaches. We evaluated 15 patients who underwent placement of occipital nerve stimulators for the treatment of chronic headaches. Data were collected regarding analgesic response to ONB and to ONS. Nine of 15 patients were ONS responders (> or =50% reduction in headache frequency or severity). Thirteen patients had ONB prior to stimulator implantation. Ten of 13 who had ONB had significant relief of head pain lasting at least 24 h, and three were ONB non-responders. Of the three ONB non-responders, two were ONS responders. Of the two patients who did not have ONB prior to ONS, one was an ONS responder and one was an ONS non-responder. In conclusion, analgesic response to ONB may not be predictive of the therapeutic effect from ONS in patients with medically refractory chronic headaches.     

Thoracic epidural morphine in the palliation of chest wall pain secondary to relapsing polychondritis

Relapsing polychondritis is a rare disease of unknown etiology characterized pathologically by degeneration of the chondrocyte and replacement with fibrous connective tissue. The following case report presents the pain management of a 34-yr-old man suffering from intractable pain secondary to relapsing polychondritis. Systemic narcotic analgesics, adjunctive drugs, and peripheral nerve blocks with local anesthetic and steroid failed to adequately control the patient's pain. Thoracic epidural morphine was used to provide excellent relief of pain. Factors in the selection of an implantable narcotic delivery system as well as practical considerations including tolerance and potential side effects of intraspinal narcotics are discussed. Ethical issues surrounding the chronic use of intraspinal narcotics in the setting of chronic benign pain are also discussed.     

Referred pain after painful stimulation of the greater occipital nerve in humans: evidence of convergence of cervical afferences on trigeminal nuclei

Cranial sensory innervation is supplied mainly by the trigeminal nerves and by the first cervical nerves. Excitatory and inhibitory interactions among those nerve roots may occur in a mechanism called nociceptive convergence, leading to loss of somato-sensory spatial specificity. Three volunteers in an experimental trial had sterile water injected over their greater occipital nerve on one side of the neck. Pain intensity was evaluated 10, 30 and 120 s after the injection. Two of the patients reported intense pain. Trigeminal autonomic features, suggestive of parasympathetic activation, were seen associated with trigeminally distributed pain. These data add to and reinforce previous evidence of convergence of cervical afferents on the trigeminal sensory circuit.     

Extending the efficacy of a thermal biofeedback treatment package to the management of tension-type headaches in children

This study explored the efficacy of a thermal biofeedback treatment package as an intervention with children with tension-type headaches. In a within-subject, time-lagged, multiple baseline design, five children, aged 8 to 14 years, were assigned to baselines of varying lengths prior to receiving treatment. Treatment was introduced sequentially across subjects and involved six thermal biofeedback treatment visits. Parents were also given guidelines for how best to encourage children to independently use the biofeedback skills. Data confirm that the participants learned the handwarming skill, practiced the skill on a regular basis during treatment, and independently used the skills to manage their pain. All participants demonstrated clinically significant reductions in one or more headache parameters (frequency, duration, intensity) following treatment. At 6-month follow-up, four of the five participants were headache-free. Although the thermal biofeedback treatment package was generally effective for these children with tension-type headaches, the specific type of headache experienced by each child appeared to influence the specific response to treatment. In addition, no single measure of headache activity was the best indicator of response to treatment. The efficacy of the thermal biofeedback treatment package is supported as an alternative treatment for children suffering from tension-type headaches.