The longitudinally split vascularized fibula with a vascularized periosteal flap for the reconstruction of large segmental bone defects of the tibia

Summary A new principle in reconstructive surgery is presented: The immediate reconstruction of a missing bone segment with a primary osteoperiosteal tube that will secondarily be transformed into a complete osseous tube. In 5 out of 7 baboons, a bone tube with an almost normal bone cavity was achieved after 16 to 28 weeks. In 2 cases, we failed to reconstruct the tube because of an intraoperative fault and postoperative plate fracture with subsequent destruction of the vascularized periosteal flap. On the basis of this study, we describe a new concept in reconstruction of segmental bone defects of the lower extremity. The osteoperiosteal tube is formed by the combination of two successful experimental and clinical techniques: the vascularized fibular transfer which is modified by splitting the bone graft longitudinally, and transfer of vascularized periosteum (concept of the substitution of a missing bone segment by an organ-like tube). In the most stressed marginal region of the bone defect, there is vascularized cortical bone from the longitudinally split fibular graft and an increasing amount of lamellar bone being produced under the vascularized periosteal flap. By splitting the graft, nutrition depends entirely on the periosteal blood supply. The concept of the dual blood supply was initially described by Berggren et al. and Papanastasiou et al. [4, 18]. The significance of the concept of the vascularized periosteum transfer for reconstruction of a segmental bone defect is well illustrated. Only in cases where the vascularized periosteal flap was intact and securely sutured to the fibulae graft and the two tibia stumps could a bone tube be reconstructed. The arrangement of both vascularized grafts as an osteoperiosteal tube exemplify the concept of the given space as described by Stock et al. [26]. Inside the osteoperiosteal tube, a consolidation chamber is created in which all the factors required for bone formation can be concentrated. Comparison of the results of successfully reconstructed bone tubes with the solid bone column in the defect of the baboon where no bone tube could be reconstructed underline the concept of combination of different vascularized grafts for reconstruction of segmental bone defects in long bone defects of the lower extremity.This work was presented at the 5th German-Austrian-Swiss Congress of Traumatology in Berlin in November of 1987. The part of vascularity analysis was supported by a grant from the Friedrich-Baur-Stiftung     

Free vascularized fibular bone flap in the rat

Free vascularized fibula bone flap has been widely used in reconstruction of the mandible, long segment defect, congenital pseudarthroses, and osteomyelitis. Such applications stirred an interest in basic studies of bone biology, bone healing process, and incorporation of recipient bone defect. An experimental free vascularized fibula rat model is presented here for such investigations. We performed 16 angiograms and anatomic dissections in eight rats for collecting data on fibular length, blood supply, and the caliber of significant vessels. The fibula was harvested with part of the flexor hallucis longus muscle with an average length of 28 mm. The pedicle can be taken in continuity with the popliteal vessels (average diameter of 0.8 mm and 0.9 mm of artery and vein, respectively, with an average pedicle length of 14 mm). This vascularized fibula bone was harvested and transferred to the groin area of the same rat and anastomosed to the saphenous vessels. Twelve transplantations were performed, with a 7-day flap survival rate of 100%. The free fibula vascularized bone flap in the rat is a reliable model for further investigations.     

带血管蒂腓骨骨皮瓣移植修复创伤性骨髓炎所致骨缺损

目的探讨带血管蒂腓骨骨皮瓣移植修复创伤性骨髓炎所致骨缺损的临床应用。方法采用带血管蒂腓骨骨皮瓣移植治疗创伤性骨髓炎所致骨缺损患者20例。随访观察患者骨及软组织缺损愈合和功能恢复情况。结果 20例患者术后随访12~24个月,创面术后2周均1期愈合,X线示移植腓骨约3~4个月愈合,患肢关节功能保留完好,骨髓炎病灶消除,无复发,移植腓骨12~18个月胫骨化。结论采用带血管蒂腓骨骨皮瓣移植是治疗创伤性骨髓炎所致软组织及骨缺损的一种有效方法。     

带血供脂肪筋膜瓣对骺板缺损骨桥形成的预防作用

目的 制作未成年兔的股骨远端中心型骺板缺损模型,观察带血供脂肪筋膜瓣充填骺板缺损后对骨桥形成的预防作用.方法 用3.5mm克氏针造成兔一侧股骨远端中心型骺板缺损,另一侧作正常参照.实验动物分为3组,A组用带血供脂肪筋膜瓣填塞骺板缺损;B组用游离脂肪筋膜瓣填塞;C组不做任何填塞,为单纯缺损组.20周后,取3组手术侧股骨长度、膝关节外翻角与健侧的差值进行比较,评价股骨的畸形.并通过组织学的方法观察骨桥形成及骺板自身修复情况.结果 3组的手术侧股骨长度较对侧正常股骨短,A、B、C组短缩的程度分别为(1.73±1.37)、(3.89±1.49)、(6.52±1.62) mm,3组之间差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);3组手术侧股骨与健侧对比均有不同程度的外翻畸形,外翻角的差异分别为A组(3.73±3.41)°,B组(6.34±6.07)°,C组( 18.38±10.65)°,C组外翻畸形明显,而A、B两组之间无统计学意义(P＞0.05).组织学观察,A组脂肪筋膜瓣未被吸收,并有较规则的骺板再生;B组脂肪筋膜瓣大部分吸收,与骺板之间有骨桥形成,骺板再生不规则;C组有明显骨桥形成.结论 带血供脂肪筋膜瓣对中心型骺板缺损后的骨桥形成有明显的预防作用,且能减小骺板缺损后股骨的畸形程度.     

Healing of a scaphoid nonunion using human bone morphogenetic protein

A chronic nonunion of a proximal pole fracture of the scaphoid was treated by curettage of the nonunion, single K-wire fixation, and implantation of 50 mg of human bone morphogenetic protein followed by 12 weeks of cast immobilization without any conventional corticocancellous bone grafting or rigid screw fixation. Radiographs showed signs of bony healing by 12 weeks and a magnetic resonance imaging scan 6 years after surgery showed no signs of avascular necrosis. The potential future applications of human bone morphogenetic protein in hand surgery are discussed.     

胫骨皮瓣游离移植修复小腿创伤性骨和皮肤缺损

目的探讨应用胫骨皮瓣游离移植一期修复小腿严重创伤性骨与皮肤缺损，免除截肢的治疗方法。方法对12例小腿创伤性骨与皮肤缺损采用胫骨皮瓣游离移植进行治疗。一期重建患肢胫骨支架连续性及覆盖创面。皮瓣最长17cm，最宽10cm；骨瓣最长12cm。结果术后随访最短6个月，最长5年，皮瓣血运良好，术后2个月内均见骨瓣开始生长，术后3—5个月移植骨均达骨性愈合，平均愈合时间为15周，累及的炎症得到完全控制，修复的肢体功能、外形令人满意。结论胫骨皮瓣具有解剖标志清楚、骨膜较厚、血供丰富、血管蒂多、供骨量大、皮瓣面积大、位置表浅、手术操作有较大的灵活性等优点，治疗小腿严重创伤性骨皮缺损可一次完成骨架重建及创面覆盖，有利于肢体功能的尽早恢复。     

带血供肌瓣作为骨形态发生蛋白载体修复骨缺损的实验研究

目的 探讨带血供肌瓣作为骨形态发生蛋白（BMP）载体修复骨缺损的可行性。方法 观察带血从肌瓣复合BMP和单纯BMP组修复骨缺损时的成骨情况;对纤维蛋白粘合剂、带血供肌瓣、无血运肌瓣、同种异体脱钙骨4种不同BMP载体的成骨能力进行比较。结果 以指深屈肌支为蒂制备的带血供肌瓣复合BMP修复骨缺损,效果优于单纯BMP组;带血供肌瓣联合纤维蛋白粘合剂复合BMP修复骨缺损,效果优于单纯BMP组;带血供肌瓣联合纤维蛋白粘合剂复合BMP组修复骨缺损,效果优于其它载体。结论 带血供肌瓣可作为BMP的良好载体。带血供肌瓣联合纤维蛋白粘合剂作BMP的载体效果更优。     

Bovine bone implant with bovine bone morphogenetic protein in healing a canine ulnar defect

Xenograft is considered an alternative material for bone transplantation, but its bone healing capacity is inferior compared to that of autografts and allografts. Here, we tested whether bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) addition enhances the suitability of demineralized xenogeneic bovine bone for bone grafting in dogs, and whether xenogeneic bone is a suitable carrier material for BMPs. The capacity of demineralized bovine bone implants, with and without native partially purified bovine BMP, to heal a 2-cm ulnar defect was determined in six dogs over a follow-up time of 20 weeks. No instances of bone union were seen, but there was slightly more bone formation in the xenografts with BMP, though the difference was not statistically significant. The ulnas treated with an implant with BMP were also mechanically stronger, but the difference was not significant. Computed tomography scans showed no differences in the implant area in bone density, bone mineral content, or bone cross-sectional area. It is concluded that native, partially purified BMP does not sufficiently improve the suitability of bovine demineralized xenografts as a bone substitute material for dog. Demineralized xenogeneic bone does not seem to be a feasible carrier material for BMP.     

The vascularized medial femoral condyle periosteal bone flap for the treatment of recalcitrant bony nonunions

The purpose of this study was to examine our experience with this flap for the treatment of recalcitrant nonunions of the extremities. A retrospective chart review was performed on 11 consecutive patients treated with the medial femoral periosteal bone flap from June 2003 to March 2005. Patient demographics, nonunion characteristics, complications, and long-term outcome based on radiographic and clinical parameters were analyzed. Nine free transfers and 3 pedicled flaps were used for a total of 12 nonunion sites in 11 patients. The average age of the patient population was 49 years (21-64 years). The location of the nonunion sites were femur (n = 4), tibia (n = 2), humerus (n = 3), clavicle (n = 2), and radius (n = 1). The nonunion sites were secondary to traumatic fractures complicated by osteomyelitis (n = 10) and tumor extirpation (n = 2). The time period of nonunion prior to the use of vascularized periosteal bone graft ranged from 10 months to 23 years (median = 23 months). All patients had previous attempts at debridement with or without antibiotic bead placement, and all underwent rigid fixation with or without nonvascularized bone grafts prior to vascularized grafting. Following flap placement, 9 (75%) of the nonunion sites healed primarily without complication at an average period of 3.8 months (2-7 months). Two nonunions healed secondarily following hardware modification. There was only 1 flap failure secondary to arterial thrombosis, resulting in a below-knee amputation. The rate of limb salvage was 91%. Donor-site morbidity was minimal, with postoperative seromas occurring in 3 patients.     

带血管蒂骨膜瓣移位修复舟骨骨折的解剖与临床

目的通过解剖学观测,为腕背支骨膜瓣的临床应用提供依据.方法50侧成成人尸体上肢标本,观测骨间前动脉腕背支的走行、分支、分布及吻合情况,设计腕背支及其分支为蒂骨膜瓣移位术.结果(1)腕背支距桡骨茎突上(6.0±1.0)cm处,贴骨间膜背份下行分为内、外侧终支,分别与尺、桡动脉的腕背支相吻合.腕背支近端两侧分出尺、桡侧骨皮支,二者降支循尺、桡骨背份走行,并分出骨膜支分布;(2)临床应用15例,术后3～5个月骨折愈合,腕关节功能恢复.结论以骨间前动脉腕背支为蒂的骨膜瓣可用于舟、月骨损伤修复.     

Post-traumatic bone loss of the femur treated with segmental bone allograft and bone morphogenetic protein: a case report

Reconstruction of a major bone loss remains a challenge for the orthopaedic surgeon. Most of the bone defects result from a bone tumour resection whereas a post-traumatic bone loss is more rare due to the numerous options available for bone fixation. However in high-energy trauma, the injury to bone may be so extensive as to justify removal of fragmented bone. A 57-year-old man presented with a severe injury at the thigh after a hunting accident, including a comminuted fracture of the femoral shaft. After thorough debridement, he was left with a large diaphyseal bone defect which was subsequently treated with a structural bone allograft, autogenous graft and rhBMP-7. Bone healing was achieved after several months.     

Osteogenesis in a rat model: use of bone marrow cells and biodegradable gelatin matrix carrier

We investigated the use of a biodegradable porcine gelatin matrix (Gelfoam) as a carrier for marrow cells that induce osteogenesis at ectopic sites in rats. Bone marrow cells obtained from the long bones of 6-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats were dissociated enzymatically and the cells reconstituted in rat serum. Twenty million cells in 0.1 mL of serum were then adsorbed into 1-cm3 pieces of gelatin matrix substrate and implanted into ectopic sites in live Sprague-Dawley rats. The implants were retrieved and analyzed histologically for bone and cartilage formation 3, 4, 6, and 8 weeks after implantation. Woven bone was seen as early as 3 weeks and persisted through 8 weeks. No cartilage was observed. Osteoclasts first appeared at 3 weeks, peaking in number at 4 weeks. By 6 and 8 weeks, only small islets of substrate remained, surrounded by dense, woven bone. Control implants, consisting only of serum adsorbed into the carrier, showed no bone formation. We conclude that biodegradable gelatin matrix can serve as a carrier for the osteogenic cells of bone marrow in rats in ectopic sites. Such a system may be further developed to augment bone healing.     

Extraosseous bone formation obtained by association of mesenchymal stem cells with a periosteal flap in the rat

BACKGROUND: Local bone cell therapy consists in grafting a large number of osteocompetent cells in the bone defect. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) have been demonstrated as an attractive cell source for tissue-engineering applications because of their ability to be easily isolated and expanded from adult bone marrow and their versatility for pluripotent differentiation into mesenchymal tissues. METHODS: The purpose of our work was to evaluate in vitro the osteogenic potential (proliferation and differentiation) of rat MSC cultured in monolayer conditions and encapsulated in alginate beads and in vivo the osteogenic potential of encapsulated MSC implanted at an extraosseous site associated with a periosteal flap to obtain the equivalent of a vascularized bone autograft. RESULTS: In vitro, the encapsulation of MSC in alginate beads maintains their degree of differentiation towards the osteoblastic lineage. In vivo, standard radiographs revealed "calcifications" adjacent to the area where alginate beads had been implanted in both groups (in the presence or the absence of MSC). In the group "beads alone," histologic analysis showed that calcifications reflected only a peripheral calcification with no bone formation. On the contrary, in the group "beads + MSC," a large mineralization process took place characterized by lamellar mature bone with osteocytes after 10 weeks.     

Solubilized bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) from mouse osteosarcoma and rat demineralized bone matrix

A selection of proteins including bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) was extracted in a disaggregated form from Dunn osteosarcoma or rat demineralized bone matrix by 4M guanidine hydrochloride (GuHCl) solution without losing its biological activity. The GuHCl extracts of Dunn osteosarcoma were divied into 4 different fractions by cesium chloride (CsCl) density gradients. Under a dissociative condition, the highest new bone yield was obtained in the low dense top one-third fraction, and BMP acitivity declined with increase in the density of each fraction. No BMP potential was observed in the surface-gel fraction under dissociative conditions. Under an associative condition (low GuHCl concentrations), BMP activity appears in the surface-gel fraction, while under a dissociative condition (high concentrations of GuHCl) BMP appears in the fraction below the surface gel. These facts suggest that under associative conditions, BMP aggregates with other low dense proteins in the surface-gel fraction and that this may be the state of aggregation of BMP in cells and matrix in nature. Present observations support the assumption that BMP is a relatively low density protein and excludes the idea of BMP activity in the collagen molecule, per se. A specific protein, with an apparent molecular weight of 63,000 daltons, is present in all fractions that exhibit BMP activity, and absent in fractions that do not exhibit this activity. BMP is not species-specific; rat BMP induces bone formation in mice. CsCl density-gradient centrifugation is an efficient tool for further purification and isolation of BMP.     

Demineralized bone matrix and native bone morphogenetic protein in orthopaedic surgery

The recognition that demineralized bone matrix could induce bone formation when placed in mammalian skeletal muscle led to preclinical studies of crude native insoluble bone morphogenetic protein and noncollagenous protein, followed by the clinical application of demineralized bone matrix, chemosterilized autolyzed antigen-extracted allogenic bone, and autolyzed antigen-extracted allogenic bone matrix gelatin. Cultural norms and regulatory agencies influence the availability of different demineralized bone matrix preparations in different parts of the world, but there is continued interest in the biologic structure of native insoluble bone morphogenetic protein and noncollagenous protein aggregates and the applied science of osteoinduction and osteoconduction in reconstructive orthopaedic surgery. Demineralized bone matrix is not widely available in Asia, but tissue processing facilities in the United States distribute demineralized bone matrix materials with different carriers, handling properties, and possibly osteoinductive potential. The purpose of the current study was to review the development and use of various preparations of demineralized bone matrix materials.     

应用骨形态发生蛋白(BMP)修复关节软骨缺损的实验研究

目的探讨关节软骨全层缺损应用骨形态发生蛋白修复的效果。方法于2004年5月至2005年12月,30只新西兰种成年兔随机分为A,B,C三组,每只兔子左膝股骨髁间凹做一大小为4mm×5mm×2.5mm的全层关节软骨缺损。A,B组缺损内分别填充骨形态发生蛋白/纤维蛋白胶(BMP/FG)及FG,C组为空白。术后28周对缺损修复情况行大体形态、组织学和电镜观察。结果BMP/FG组,缺损组织以透明软骨修复,接近正常组织,而FG组和空白组则以纤维组织修复为主。结论BMP/FG能较好的完成关节骨软骨全层缺损的修复,并随着时间的延长修复的软骨越接近正常软骨,但修复软骨缺损的组织与邻近正常软骨组织连接性仍不是十分理想。     

骨膜瓣复合开窗异体骨移植修复大段骨缺损

目的探讨带血管薄层皮质骨-骨膜瓣嵌入开窗的异体骨修复大段骨缺损的效果。方法将兔胫骨去抗原后制备异体骨标本,制作大段骨缺损动物模型,以带血管薄层皮质骨-骨膜瓣复合开窗的异体骨进行修复。术后观察骨缺损的X线影像,对移植物及其周围软组织行组织学和免疫组织化学观察。结果实验组骨缺损骨痂形成和改造塑形,新生血管长入骨缺损处,新骨形成和骨单位成熟较对照组早。结论以带血管薄层皮质骨-骨膜瓣嵌入开窗的异体骨修复大段骨缺损的手术方法优于以骨膜瓣直接包裹异体骨,缩短骨缺损修复的时间。     

胫骨皮瓣游离移植治疗肱骨骨不连骨缺损

肱骨骨不连是骨科术后较为常见的并发症,治疗方法较多,效果较好。但对于一些复杂类型的肱骨骨不连,如合并感染的肱骨骨缺损,肱骨双节段骨不连等,治疗比较困难。2001年6月-2005年6月,采用胫骨皮瓣游离移植治疗13例肱骨骨不连骨缺损,取得良好效果。1临床资料本组13例,男9例,女4例;年龄14~56岁;左侧8例,右侧5例。肱骨粉碎性骨折术后骨不连、碎骨片坏死9例(开放性7例,闭合性2例),其中采用钢板固定5例;钢板加钢丝捆扎固定4例,有2例演变成骨髓炎。肱骨血源性骨髓炎形成慢性骨髓炎骨缺损合并窦道形成3例,肱骨骨折钢板固定术后骨不连再次摔伤致钢板…