The potential of peer social norms to shape food intake in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review of effects and moderators

This systematicSupplemental material for this article can be accessed at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2016.1155161.View all notes review aims to assess the role that peer social norms play in shaping young people's food intake, focusing on the important questions of for whom and when peer social norms are related to how much young people eat. Thirty-three eligible studies were reviewed (17 correlational, 16 experimental). All but one correlational studies found significant associations between norms and food intake. All experimental studies found effects of norm manipulations on food intake, and some evidence was found of behavioural spillover effects of norms. Four moderators were distilled from our literature synthesis that stipulate for whom and when peer social norms are related to food intake: identification with the norm referent group and eating-related habit strength were found to moderate the effects of social norms on food intake; forceful injunctive norms were found not to be related to food intake; and the influence of norms seemed restricted to types of foods typically consumed in the presence of peers. The findings from this literature synthesis have important implications for research, and moderators are discussed in light of psychological theory. Where applicable, potential implications for the development of social norm-based interventions to improve young people's food intake are also highlighted.     

Moving the metaphor: An act of surrender

The rationale for this paper is to enquire into the process of embodiment and moving of metaphor. A hypothesis of ‘surrender’ is suggested at the beginning and applied to two different research examples. The reasons for the original research were (for Research Example 1; Hayes, 2004 Hayes, J. (2004). The experience of student dancers in higher education in a dance movement therapy group, with reference to choreography and performance (Unpublished thesis in partial fulfilment of PhD). University of Hertfordshire.  [Google Scholar], 2006) to see how dance students perceived their involvement in DMP and if they found any links with performance and choreography, and (for Research Example 2; Hayes, 2010 Hayes, J. (2010, March). Rebirth [Performance]. Copy in possession of Jill Hayes.  [Google Scholar]) to record and question a somatic phenomenological process during preparation for and performance of a healing ritual. In this paper the author reflects upon these two research examples in order to attend to two questions pertaining to embodiment and expression of metaphor: (1) To what do we feel we surrender? and (2) How does surrender happen? Research Example 1 used a qualitative interpretive and grounded approach towards a multiple group case study (Hayes, 2004 Hayes, J. (2004). The experience of student dancers in higher education in a dance movement therapy group, with reference to choreography and performance (Unpublished thesis in partial fulfilment of PhD). University of Hertfordshire.  [Google Scholar]), while Research Example 2 is more recent heuristic research project (Hayes, 2010 Hayes, J. (2010, March). Rebirth [Performance]. Copy in possession of Jill Hayes.  [Google Scholar]) in which the researcher's own immersion in metaphor is evaluated from an archetypal perspective. A key finding of Research Example 1 was that externalisation of personal feelings through metaphor facilitated group discussion of hidden interpersonal dynamics. A key finding of Research Example 2 was that movement metaphor was the key mode of travel into the archetypal realm. The author concludes that surrender involves three components: physical response-ability, sustainment of organic movement and sustainment of image.     

Creating dances to transform inner states: A choreographic model in Dance/Movement Therapy

This article proposes a choreographic model for Dance/Movement Therapy as it relates to the transformation of psychological material through the medium of dance choreography and performance. The choreo-therapeutic model uses Dance/Movement Therapy and general psychotherapy techniques to support clients to work with their psychological material, externalise it into dance choreography, make meaning of and transform the material, and integrate it through performance. Creating and performing dances in the context of a therapeutic goal will likely facilitate clients to understand their relationship to themselves and others, gain insight into their own unique process of expression, learn their associations with being seen, and utilise the witness function of an audience (Caldwell, 1996 Caldwell, C. 1996. Getting our bodies back: Recovery, healing, and transformation through body-centered psychotherapy, Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications.  [Google Scholar]; Levy, 1988 Levy, FJ. 1988. Dance movement therapy: A healing art, Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Dance.  [Google Scholar]; Pallaro, 2007 Pallaro, P. (Ed.) (2007). Authentic Movement: Moving the body, moving the self, being moved: A collection of essays, volume two. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley [Google Scholar]). This writer proposes that the creative process of dance choreography and performance brings greater organisation and clarification to the experience of internal states.     

Becoming bonded through Developmental Movement Play: review of a parent and child movement group incorporating the theory,practice and philosophy of Sherborne Developmental Movement

This paper is a reflection on a Developmental Movement Play (DMP) programme based on Sherborne Developmental Movement (SDM) for parents and their young children experiencing emotional, behavioural and/or mental health difficulties. A focus on embodiment through movement experiences, dance and relationship play (Sherborne, 2001 Sherborne, V. (2001) Developmental movement for children: Mainstream, special needs and pre-school (2nd ed.). London: Worth Publishing  [Google Scholar]) is described within the programme. This is then discussed in relation to the bonding between parent–child, which takes place through shared movement experiences. Participants in the programme were referred through multi-disciplinary agencies with concerns for the parent–child relationship. The final group comprised 10 children (aged 18 months to eight years) and their mothers. The study uses a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods to investigate the effectiveness of using DMP/SDM to facilitate changes in attitudes, feelings, moods and parenting styles. Results of the research are discussed and an examination of theory underpinning SDM explores Laban's principles of human movement (1998) and attachment theories (Ainsworth, Bell, Blehar, & Main, 1971; Bowlby, 1951 Bowlby, J. (1951). Maternal care and mental health. World Health Organization, 3, 355--534  [Google Scholar]) in order to identify the psychotherapeutic nature of the programme. The limitations of the study are recognised alongside recommendations for further work.     

The body as theatre of passions and conflicts: Affects,emotions, and defences

We can say that emotions and affects, as well as psychological defences against anxieties, find their channels of expression through the body and movements in ways that often are hidden or not immediately obvious. This paper will address the ways in which Laban Movement Analysis (LMA) (1950), and the studies by Kestenberg (1975 Kestenberg, JS. 1975. Children and parents: Psychoanalytic studies in development, New York: Jason Aronson.  [Google Scholar], 1977, 1999 Kestenberg, JS, Amighi, J, Loman, S, Lewis, P and Sossin, KM. 1999. The meaning of movement. Developmental and clinical perspectives of the KMP, The Netherlands: Gordon and Breach.  [Google Scholar]), Bartenieff (1980 Bartenieff, I and Lewis, D. 1980. Body movement: Coping with the environment, Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Publishers.  [Google Scholar]), Whitehouse (1979 Whitehouse, MS. 1979. “C. G. Jung and Dance Therapy, Two Major Principles”. In Authentic movement: Essays by Mary Starks Whitehouse, Janet Adler and Joan Chodorow, Edited by: Pallaro, P. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 1999 [Google Scholar], 1988), and Chodorow (2001 Chodorow, J. 2001. Emotions and the archetypal imagination Presented at the National Conference of Jungian Analysts, February [Google Scholar]) can be used to facilitate the understanding of the psychodynamic processes at their source, regarding emotions/affects in relation to the defence mechanisms. In a Dance Movement Therapy (DMT) setting, processes like identification, body empathy, and somatic countertransference are some of the tools to understand and to give meaning to the client's clinical issues, according to the developmental level of their needs. A specific quality of attention, respect, and containment is required for the creation of trust. The capacity to observe, to “witness” (Adler, 1987 Adler, J. 1987. “Who is the witness”. In Authentic movement: Essays by Mary Starks Whitehouse, Janet Adler and Joan Chodorow, Edited by: Pallaro, P. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 1999 [Google Scholar]), and to “listen” deeply offers a way to work with the subtle nuances of movement expression and to understand their hidden meaning in a therapeutic way.     

Pet in the therapy room: An attachment perspective on Animal-Assisted Therapy

John Bowlby's (1973 Bowlby, J. 1973. Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger, New York, NY: Basic Books. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 1980 Bowlby, J. 1980. Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Sadness and depression, New York, NY: Basic Books.  [Google Scholar], 1982 Bowlby, J. 1982. Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment, New York, NY: Basic Books. Original work published 1969 [Google Scholar]) attachment theory is one of the most influential theories in personality and developmental psychology and provides insights into adjustment and psychopathology across the lifespan. The theory is also helpful in defining the target of change in psychotherapy, understanding the processes by which change occurs, and conceptualizing cases and planning treatment (Daniel, 2006 Daniel, S. I.F. 2006. Adult attachment patterns and individual psychotherapy: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26: 968–984. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Obegi & Berant, 2008 Obegi, J. H. and Berant, E. 2008. Attachment theory and research in clinical work with adults, New York, NY: Guilford Press.  [Google Scholar]; Sable, 2004 Sable, P. 2004. Attachment, ethology, and adult psychotherapy. Attachment & Human Development, 6: 3–19. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Wallin, 2007 Wallin, D. J. 2007. Attachment in psychotherapy, New York, NY: Guilford Publications.  [Google Scholar]). Here, we propose a model of Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) based on attachment theory and on the unique characteristics of human–pet relationships. The model includes clients' unmet attachment needs, individual differences in attachment insecurity, coping, and responsiveness to therapy. It also suggests ways to foster the development of more adaptive patterns of attachment and healthier modes of relating to others.     

Effects of attachment-focused versus relationship skills-focused group interventions for college students with insecure attachment patterns

Abstract

This study tested the attachment issues segment of Kilmann's ( 1996 Kilmann, P. R. 1996. Attachment-based group preventive intervention, University of South Carolina. Unpublished manual [Google Scholar]) manualized attachment-focused (AF) group intervention. College students with insecure adult attachment patterns were randomly assigned into either a manualized attachment-focused group or into a manualized relationship skills-focused (RS) group. A no-intervention control condition (NC) was recruited in the same manner. Between pre- and post-testing, AF and RS participants reported decreased agreement with dysfunctional relationship beliefs. AF participants also reported higher self-esteem, decreased angry reaction, and increased control of anger. RS participants reported improved interpersonal styles. At the 15 – 18-month follow-up, AF and RS participants reported increased self-awareness and positive relationship expectations and experiences, while NC participants reported no positive changes.     

Masculinity/Femininity Predicts Brain Volumes in Normal Healthy Children

Previous research has shown sex differences in brain morphology (De Bellis et al., 2001 De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Beers, S. R., Hall, J., Frustaci, K., Masalehdan, A., … and Boring, A. M. 2001. Sex differences in brain maturation during childhood and adolescence. Cerebral Cortex, 11: 552–557. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). However, these studies have not taken gender into account. Gender is a phenotype that describes behavior. In this study, we examined the relationship between gender, sex, and brain volumes in children. One hundred and eight children ages 7 to 17 were administered the Children's Sex Role Inventory (Boldizar, 1991 Boldizar, J. 1991. Assessing sex typing and androgyny in children: The children's sex role inventory. Developmental Psychology, 127: 505–515. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) and obtained volumetric brain data via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We found that, in the frontal lobe, higher masculinity predicted greater volumes of white matter. Also, in the temporal lobe, higher femininity predicted greater volumes of gray matter.     

Attachment in adults with high-functioning autism

The relationships among social skills, dysregulation of symbolic representations of attachment, and school readiness were examined. Participants were 74 preschool children from low-income families in Midwest America. Attachment representations and dysregulation of symbolic representations of attachment were assessed using a story completion task (George &; Solomon, 2000 George, C. and Solomon, J. 2000. Six-Year Attachment Doll Play Classification System Unpublished classification manual, Mills College, Oakland, CA [Google Scholar]) and teachers completed a survey of child behavior, which was used to assess social skills and school readiness skills. Dysregulated content in children's narratives and social skills were significant negative correlates of school readiness. There was also a marginally significant negative association between defensive dysregulation and school readiness skills for children classified as disorganized. Furthermore, a specific marker of dysregulation, controlling behavior toward the administrator, was negatively associated with school readiness, but only for children classified as disorganized. Results from this study suggest that a breakdown in the strategies of insecure/organized children may be a risk factor for low levels of school readiness and that different forms of disorganization may be associated with different types of risk. It may be useful for future studies to account for different forms of disorganization and evidence of a breakdown of strategy.     

Schizophrenia,theory of mind,and persecutory delusions

Introduction. There is already a substantial body of evidence supporting Frith's (1992 Frith CD (1992) The cognitive neuropsychology of schizophrenia Hove, UK: Psychology Press  ) theory that theory of mind (ToM) is impaired in people with schizophrenia. However, a specific relationship between impaired ToM and paranoid delusions, while intuitively reasonable, has only been demonstrated in two studies to date.

Methods. A total of 25 participants with schizophrenia were classified as paranoid or nonparanoid and compared with 38 healthy controls on a variety of ToM tasks. These tasks included verbal and nonverbal, and first and second order ToM tasks.

Results. Participants with schizophrenia performed significantly more poorly than healthy controls on both the first and second order verbal ToM tasks but not on the nonverbal ToM tasks. However, the ToM deficit was only observed for those participants with schizophrenia who had persecutory delusions. There was also a strong relationship observed between the severity of persecutory delusions and length of illness.

Conclusions. This study represents only the third demonstration of a specific link between paranoid delusions and ToM impairment. Reasons why previous findings on this issue have been so inconsistent are considered. Further research is needed to explore the relationships among paranoia, ToM, and length of illness.     

Independent influences upon mother–toddler role reversal: infant–mother attachment disorganization and role reversal in mother's childhood

In role reversal a child takes an inappropriate parental, spousal, or peer role with the caregiver. The study assessed attachment disorganization with mother in infancy in the Strange Situation (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978 Ainsworth, M. D.S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E. and Wall, S. 1978. Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.  [Google Scholar]) and role reversal at 2 years old in videotaped mother–child interactions. By closely observing role reversal at this early age, results fill in the picture concerning the link between disorganized infant–mother attachment and controlling role reversal at 6 years old (Main & Cassidy, 1988 Main, M. and Cassidy, J. 1988. Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24: 415–426. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985 Main, M., Kaplan, N. and Cassidy, J. C. 1985. “Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation”. In Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development Edited by: Bretherton, I. and Waters, E. 50(Serial No. 209, 1–2), 66–104[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). As hypothesized, infant–mother disorganization significantly predicted mother–toddler role reversal. The study also deepened research that predicted role reversal from parent Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) role reversal assessed before the child was born (Macfie, McElwain, Houts, & Cox, 2005 Macfie, J., McElwain, N. L., Houts, R. M. and Cox, M. J. 2005. Intergenerational transmission of role reversal between parent and child: Dyadic and family systems internal working models. Attachment & Human Development, 7: 51–65. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). As hypothesized, mother AAI role reversal with her mother in childhood significantly predicted mother–toddler role reversal over and above infant–mother disorganization. Results are discussed within a developmental psychopathology framework including opportunities for developmentally sensitive interventions.     

Working Memory and New Learning Following Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury

Working memory (WM), the ability to monitor, process and maintain task relevant information on-line to respond to immediate environmental demands, is controlled by frontal systems (D'Esposito et al., 2006 D'Esposito, M., Cooney, J. W., Gazzaley, A., Gibbs, S. E. and Postle, B. R. 2006. Is the prefrontal cortex necessary for delay task performance? Evidence from lesion and fMRI data.. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12: 248–260.  [Google Scholar]), which are particularly vulnerable to damage from a traumatic brain injury (TBI). This study employed the adult-based Working Memory model of Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Baddeley, A. D. and Hitch, G. 1974. “Working memory”. In The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. VIII Edited by: Bower, G. H. 47–90. New York: Academic Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar] to examine the relationship between working memory function and new verbal learning in children with TBI. A cross-sectional sample of 36 school-aged children with a moderate to severe TBI was compared to age-matched healthy Controls on a series of tasks assessing working memory subsystems: the Phonological Loop (PL) and Central Executive (CE). The TBI group performed significantly more poorly than Controls on the PL measure and the majority of CE tasks. On new learning tasks, the TBI group consistently produced fewer words than Controls across the learning and delayed recall phases. Results revealed impaired PL function related to poor encoding and acquisition on a new verbal learning task in the TBI group. CE retrieval deficits in the TBI group contributed to general memory dysfunction in acquisition, retrieval and recognition memory. These results suggest that the nature of learning and memory deficits in children with TBI is related to working memory impairment.     

Pathways to earned-security: The role of alternative support figures

This study explored the kinds of relationship experiences associated with earned-security, i.e., the extent to which mothers who report early negative relationship histories with their parents are later able to form a secure working model of attachment (indicated by the ability to speak clearly and coherently about these histories). Mothers from a low-risk sample (N = 121) expecting their first child completed the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), which was used to assess earned-security retrospectively using the stringent definition recommended by Main and Hesse (Hesse, 2008 Hesse, E. 2008. “The Adult Attachment Interview: Protocol, method of analysis, and empirical studies”. In The handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications, Edited by: Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P. R. 552–598. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.  [Google Scholar]; Main, Goldwyn, & Hesse, 2002 Main, M., Goldwyn, R. and Hesse, E. 2002/2008. Adult attachment scoring and classification system, Unpublished scoring manual, University of California at Berkeley.  [Google Scholar]), as well as to identify alternative support figures. Participants also completed self-report measures of depressive symptomatology, questionnaires concerning their experiences in therapy, and later, when their babies were 12 to 15 months old, the Strange Situation procedure. Sixteen mothers were classified as earned-secure (25% of those classified as secure-autonomous and 13% of the whole sample). Women who were earned-secure (vs. insecure and continuous-secure) reported significantly higher levels of emotional support, but not instrumental support, from alternative support figures. They also spent more time in therapy than did insecure and continuous-secure women and were more likely to form secure attachments with their infants than insecure women. These findings were obtained even after controlling for depressive symptoms.     

Narrative story stems with high risk six year-olds: Differential associations with mother- and teacher-reported psycho-social adjustment

Children's responses on a Narrative Story Stem Technique (NSST) were coded using scales reflecting essential attachment constructs, specifically, attachment, exploratory, sociability, and caregiving behavioral systems, as originally conceived by Bowlby (1973 Bowlby, J. 1973. Attachment and loss, Vol. II: Separation: Anxiety and anger, New York: Basic Books.  [Google Scholar], 1982 Bowlby, J. 1982. Attachment and loss, Vol. I: Attachment , (2^nd ed.), New York: Basic Books.  [Google Scholar]) and elaborated upon by his followers (Cassidy, 2008 Cassidy, J. 2008. “The nature of the child's ties”. In Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications , (2nd ed., Edited by: Cassidy, J. and Shaver, P. R. 3–22. New York: Guilford Press.  [Google Scholar]). NSST responses were examined in relation to both mother- and teacher-reported psycho-social adjustment and risk using the MacArthur Health & Behavior Questionnaire (HBQ). Forty-six children participated (average age 6 years 10 months), 19 of whom had high-risk backgrounds, and the rest demographically matched. Findings indicate that NSST scales were associated with behavior on certain HBQ scales, in expected directions. NSST responses appeared to differentiate socially competent children from children with the specific psycho-social risks of externalizing behavior problems and social isolation, according to mother-reports, on the one hand, and peer vulnerability and internalizing problems, according to teacher-reports, on the other. Implications for clinical applications are discussed.     

Mathematical Difficulties in Nonverbal Learning Disability or Co-Morbid Dyscalculia and Dyslexia

The main goal of the present study was to shed further light on the weaknesses of children with different profiles of mathematical difficulties, testing children with nonverbal learning disability (NLD), co-morbid dyscalculia and dyslexia (D&D), or typical development (TD). Sixteen children with NLD, 15 with D&D, and 16 with TD completed tasks derived from Butterworth (2003 Butterworth, B. 2003. Dyscalculia screener: Highlighting pupils with specific learning difficulties in maths, London, , England: NFER Nelson.  [Google Scholar]) and divided into: a capacity subscale (i.e., a number–dots comparison task, a number comparison task, and a dots comparison task); and an achievement subscale (i.e., mental calculations and arithmetical fact retrieval). Children with NLD were impaired in the dots comparison task, children with D&D in the mental calculation and arithmetical facts.     

Superior estimation abilities in two autistic spectrum children

Anecdotal reports of superior estimation abilities in autistic individuals (e.g., Sacks, 1985 Sacks, O. 1985. The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales, London, , UK: Duckworth.  [Google Scholar]) have never been confirmed empirically. We present here case studies of 2 children with autistic spectrum diagnoses and report remarkable abilities in estimation for several quantifiable dimensions. K.T. and G.T. were tested at 9 years of age for estimation of rank, numerosity, time, weight, length, surface, distance, and precise enumeration for small numbers. Their performances were compared to those of 6 age- and IQ- matched comparison children. K.T. demonstrated a superior level of performance in estimating rank (e.g., which set has larger numerosity?) but his performance in other tasks was average. G.T. displayed outstanding performance in estimating numerosity, time, weight, surface, length, and distance, with average performance in other tasks. These results show that certain autistic spectrum individuals may develop superior and highly specialized abilities in estimation. We discuss these findings in relation to the role of “veridical mapping” in the development of special ability (Mottron, Dawson, & Soulières, 2009 Mottron, L., Dawson, M. and Soulières, I. 2009. Enhanced perception in savant syndrome: Patterns, structure and creativity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 364: 1385–1391. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Mottron, Dawson, Soulieres, Hubert, & Burack, 2006a). Veridical mapping is the detection of isomorphism within a code, between two codes, or between one code and isomorphic elements of the world. Within this framework, it is proposed that estimation abilities, like absolute pitch, rely on the ability to map a verbal code with a specific magnitude of a psychophysical dimension.