Acculturation,Parent–Child Acculturation Differential,and Chronic Disease Risk Factors in a Mexican-American Population

Acculturation is typically defined in terms of individual responses to a dominant culture. In the present study, we examined the effects of different levels of acculturation among family members. Specifically, we looked at the health and risk behavior in Mexican-American children as related to a variety of psychosocial predictors, especially the differences in orientation toward Mexican- and Anglo-American cultures between them and their parents. Mother and child pairs (n = 106) noted their orientation toward both Anglo and Mexican cultures. Children’s dietary and sedentary behaviors, tobacco and alcohol use (and susceptibility to use), and depressive symptoms were also measured. Males were more likely to be sedentary and consume higher levels of total fat and saturated fat, whereas girls reported higher levels of depression. Anglo-oriented youth consumed lower levels of calories from fat but also more alcohol than did their Mexican-oriented counterparts. The latter was particularly the case among those children who were relatively more Anglo oriented than were their parents. Parent–child acculturation differential in terms of the differences in Mexican orientation, in comparison, predicted susceptibility to tobacco use. However, the sum of the absolute values of these two differences predicted only lifetime alcohol use, and in a counter-intuitive direction. This familial measure of acculturation shows some promise, but additional formative research is needed to operationalize this construct.     

Acculturation and drinking patterns among U.S. Anglos, blacks, and Mexican Americans.

The relationship between acculturation, generational status/nativity and drinking patterns is examined using data from a 1988 community survey of 1286 adult regular drinkers (at least two drinks/month) in San Antonio, Texas. This sample includes 412 Anglo, 239 Black, and 635 Mexican American respondents, with Mexican Americans further classified into high, medium, and low acculturation groups using a language-use-based acculturation measure. This data set allows comparisons between racial/ethnic majority and minority groups with further comparisons between Black and Mexican American subgroups. These racial/ethnic and acculturation level comparisons highlight the effects of minority status and cultural differences between groups with regard to drinking patterns. Overall, the analyses indicate little evidence to support an 'acculturation stress' model of alcohol use, wherein the stresses of acculturation produce higher levels of alcohol consumption among moderately or higher acculturation groups. Generally, in our data, quantity and frequency consumption was somewhat higher among the least acculturated males and moderately acculturated females. Further analyses by generational status indicate heavier consumption patterns among second-generation individuals, especially among the less acculturated, though those differences were eliminated by controls. The findings highlight inadequacies of using generational status/nativity measures alone to assess acculturation level. Further, joint effects of acculturation level and generational status suggest the viability of a cultural marginality model of acculturation, though many of the effects of acculturation and generational status are explained by demographic and psychosocial factors.     

Parent–Child Acculturation Discrepancies as a Risk Factor for Substance Use among Hispanic Adolescents in Southern California

Theories of acculturation predict that discrepancies in cultural orientation between adolescents and their parents will increase the adolescents’ risk for behavior problems such as substance use. This study evaluated this hypothesis in a sample of 1772 Hispanic 9th grade students in Southern California. Parent–child discrepancy in U.S. orientation (defined as the difference between the child’s U.S. orientation and the child’s perception of the parents’ U.S. orientation) was a risk factor for past-month smoking, lifetime and past-month alcohol use, and lifetime and past-month marijuana use. Parent–child discrepancy in Hispanic orientation (defined as the difference between the child’s Hispanic orientation and the child’s perception of the parents’ Hispanic orientation) was a risk factor for lifetime and past-month alcohol and marijuana use. The adolescents’ own Hispanic orientation was protective against lifetime and past-month smoking and marijuana use, but not alcohol use. In an analysis of mediation, U.S. acculturation discrepancy was associated with lower levels of family cohesion, which in turn was associated with higher levels of substance use. Results suggest that family-based interventions for acculturating and bicultural Hispanic families may be useful in decreasing the likelihood of substance use among Hispanic adolescents.     

Correlates of alcohol and tobacco use among Mexican immigrants in rural North Carolina

This study examined the relationship among sociodemographic, cultural, and psychological factors associated with alcohol and tobacco use among Mexican immigrants in the rural south. Questionnaires including sociodemographics, alcohol and tobacco use, acculturation, and stress were administered to 173 Mexican immigrants residing in rural eastern North Carolina. Gender, preimmigration use, and occupational/economic stress were significant predictors for alcohol use, with preimmigration use significant for tobacco use, suggesting that alcohol and tobacco use may be related to previous behavior, rather than acculturation to American society. Stress, setting, and preimmigration substance use would be important factors to address in the immigrant's health history.     

Sensation Seeking,Risk Behaviors,and Alcohol Consumption Among Mexican Origin Youth

PurposeTo examine factors associated with ever use of alcohol among Mexican origin youth.MethodsUsing a prospective study design, we followed 1,053 Mexican origin adolescents. Participants completed two surveys in their homes and three follow-up telephone interviews, every 6–8 months, in between. The second home survey was completed 30 months (SD = 4.8 months) after baseline. Acculturation, subjective social status, and family cohesion were assessed at baseline and final home visit. Ever drinking, risk behaviors, and sensation-seeking tendencies were assessed at the final home visit only.ResultsOverall, 30% of the study participants reported ever drinking alcohol. Multivariate models revealed that being female, increasing age, lower levels of acculturation, family cohesion and subjective social status, higher sensation-seeking tendencies, and concomitantly engaging in three or four other risk behaviors were associated with ever drinking. Also, social disinhibition, an aspect of sensation seeking, mediated the relationship between engaging in other risk behaviors and alcohol use. This is consistent with previous research, suggesting that social disinhibition is a common factor that underlies the use of alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, and other problem behaviors.ConclusionsThe results of this study support taking a family-based approach to prevention that includes discussion of other risk behaviors, especially smoking, among Mexican origin youth. In addition, tailoring programs by gender, directly addressing how changes in social norms resulting from acculturation can affect a youth's decision to drink alcohol and underlying gender-based differences in why youth drink could improve the efficacy of preventive interventions.     

Maternal and infant health of Mexican immigrants in the USA: the effects of acculturation,duration, and selective return migration

Background. A significant body of research on minority health shows that while Hispanic immigrants experience unexpectedly favorable outcomes in maternal and infant health, their advantage deteriorates with increased time of residence in the USA. This is referred to as the ‘acculturation paradox.’

Objective. We assess the ‘acculturation paradox’ hypothesis that attributes this deterioration in birth and child health outcomes to negative effects of acculturation and behavioral adjustments made by immigrants while living in the USA, and investigate the potential for the existence of a selective return migration.

Design. We use a sample of Mexican immigrant women living in two Midwestern communities in the USA to analyze the effects of immigrant duration and acculturation on birth outcomes once controlling for social, behavioral, and environmental determinants of health status. These results are verified by conducting a similar analysis with a nationally representative sample of Mexican immigrants.

Results. We find duration of residence to have a significant and nonlinear relationship with birth outcomes and acculturation to not be statistically significant. The effect of mediators is minimal.

Conclusion. The analyses of birth outcomes of Mexican immigrant women shows little evidence of an acculturation effect and indirectly suggest the existence of a selective return migration mechanism.     

Do parent–child acculturation gaps affect early adolescent Latino alcohol use? A study of the probability and extent of use

The literature has been mixed regarding how parent–child relationships are affected by the acculturation process and how this process relates to alcohol use among Latino youth. The mixed results may be due to, at least, two factors: First, staggered migration in which one or both parents arrive to the new country and then send for the children may lead to faster acculturation in parents than in children for some families. Second, acculturation may have different effects depending on which aspects of alcohol use are being examined. This study addresses the first factor by testing for a curvilinear trend in the acculturation-alcohol use relationship and the second by modeling past year alcohol use as a zero inflated negative binomial distribution. Additionally, this study examined the unique and mediation effects of parent–child acculturation discrepancies (gap), mother involvement in children’s schooling, father involvement in children’s schooling, and effective parenting on youth alcohol use during the last 12 months, measured as the probability of using and the extent of use. Direct paths from parent–child acculturation discrepancy to alcohol use, and mediated paths through mother involvement, father involvement, and effective parenting were also tested. Only father involvement fully mediated the path from parent–child acculturation discrepancies to the probability of alcohol use. None of the variables examined mediated the path from parent–child acculturation discrepancies to the extent of alcohol use. Effective parenting was unrelated to acculturation discrepancies; however, it maintained a significant direct effect on the probability of youth alcohol use and the extent of use after controlling for mother and father involvement. Implications for prevention strategies are discussed.     

Alcohol use among recent immigrant Latino/a youth: acculturation,gender, and the Theory of Reasoned Action

Objective. Latino/a youth are at risk for alcohol use. This risk seems to rise with increasing US cultural orientation and decreasing Latino cultural orientation, especially among girls. To ascertain how acculturation may influence Latino/a youth alcohol use, we integrated an expanded multi-domain model of acculturation with the Theory of Reasoned Action.

Design. Participants were 302 recent Latino/a immigrant youth (141 girls, 160 boys; 152 from Miami, 150 from Los Angeles) who completed surveys at 4 time points. Youth completed measures of acculturation, attitudes toward drinking, perceived subjective norms regarding alcohol use, intention to drink, and alcohol use.

Results. Structural equation modeling indicated that collectivistic values predicted more perceived disapproval of drinking, which negatively predicted intention to drink. Intention to drink predicted elevated alcohol use.

Conclusion. Although the association between collectivistic values and social disapproval of drinking was relatively small (β = .19, p < .05), findings suggest that collectivistic values may help protect Latino/a immigrant youth from alcohol use by influencing their perceived social disapproval of drinking, leading to lower intention to drink. Educational preventive interventions aimed at reducing or preventing alcohol use in recent Latino/a immigrant youth could promote collectivistic values and disseminate messages about the negative consequences of drinking.     

Parent–Child Acculturation Patterns and Substance Use among Hispanic Adolescents: A Longitudinal Analysis

Acculturation discrepancy theory predicts that conflicting cultural preferences between adolescents and their parents will increase the adolescents’ risk for behavior problems such as substance use. This study evaluated this hypothesis in a sample of 1683 Hispanic students in Southern California who completed surveys in 9th and 10th grade. Measures included the students’ own cultural orientations and their perceptions of their parents’ preference for their cultural orientations (“Perceived Parental Cultural Expectations”—PPCE). Hispanic PPCE in 9th grade was a risk factor for lifetime, but not past-month, cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use in 10th grade. The adolescents’ own Hispanic orientation in 9th grade was protective against lifetime and past-month smoking and marijuana use and lifetime alcohol use in 10th grade. The effects of the acculturation variables did not vary according to generation in the U.S. Change in acculturation between 9th and 10th grade was statistically significant but small in magnitude. Increases in parent–child Hispanic acculturation discrepancy (i.e., the difference between the adolescents’ own cultural orientations and their PPCE, with adolescents perceiving that their parents wanted them to be more Hispanic oriented than they actually were) from 9th to 10th grade were associated with an increased risk of substance use. Family-based interventions for acculturating Hispanic families may be useful in decreasing the likelihood of substance use among Hispanic adolescents.     

Parental Feeding Practices and Concerns Related to Child Underweight,Picky Eating,and Using Food to Calm Differ According to Ethnicity/Race,Acculturation, and Income

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in parental feeding practices according to ethnicity/race, household income, parent education level, acculturation (for Hispanic participants only), and participation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program among parents living in a southern state in the United States. For this cross-sectional study, parents of children ages 1–5 years living throughout Texas were recruited through random digit dialing with screening questions during Fall 2006. Eligible parents who agreed to participate completed the Preschooler Feeding Questionnaire (PFQ) and a demographic questionnaire over the phone in either English or Spanish. The PFQ included five subscales: child overeating concerns, child underweight concerns, difficulty with picky eating, using food to calm, and pushing child to eat. Demographic questions assessed ethnicity/race, household income, parent education level, acculturation, and WIC participation. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), with the demographic variables as predictors, was used to predict the five PFQ subscales. Complete data were obtained from 721 parents, 50% of whom were Hispanic. Significant differences for the PFQ subscales were noted for ethnicity/race, acculturation, and income level. Spanish-speaking Hispanic participants were significantly more worried about their child being underweight than English-speaking Hispanic participants. High-income non-WIC respondents were more likely to report that they have difficulty with picky eaters compared to WIC respondents. Spanish-speaking Hispanics and Black respondents were more likely than English-speaking Hispanics to use food to calm the child. Health practitioners need to be aware of differences in parental feeding practices and concerns among parents of diverse demographic backgrounds. Results from this study can be used to tailor health programs that promote healthy feeding practices among parents.     

Questioning the Dietary Acculturation Paradox: A Mixed-Methods Study of the Relationship between Food and Ethnic Identity in a Group of Mexican-American Women

Background

Epidemiological studies have described an “acculturation paradox.” Increased acculturation to the United States is associated with increased consumption of dietary fat and decreased consumption of fruits/vegetables.

Depression and Antidepressant Use Among Asian and Hispanic Adults: Association with Immigrant Generation and Language Use

This research investigates the psychological well-being and usage of medical treatments by Asian and Hispanic immigrant descendants. Using data from all four waves of Add Health study, this paper focuses on two outcomes: (1) depression and (2) levels of antidepressant use by race/ethnicity, immigrant generation, and linguistic acculturation levels during adulthood. Findings reveal that depression is prevalent among Mexican Americans, other Hispanics, and Asian Americans. Furthermore, Mexican Americans and Asian Americans have reported a lower level of antidepressant use than whites, with Asian Americans attaining the lowest level when immigrant generation, language acculturation levels, and other socioeconomic factors are held constant. We also find that those who are linguistically less acculturated have much lower levels of antidepressant use than their monolingual English-speaking counterparts.     

Physical Activity,Sedentary Behavior and Substance Use among Adolescents in Slovenian Urban Area

Background

Studies of the relationship between leisure time physical activity, sedentary behaviour and substance use among adolescents report contradictory results. The aim of our study was to examine the association between self-reported leisure time physical activity, sedentary behaviour and alcohol, tobacco and cannabis use among adolescents in Slovenia.

Methods

Subjects consisted of 822 school children aged from 14 to 16 years, living in urban area of Ljubljana and Maribor. The data was collected using the EURO URHIS 2 survey. Logistic regressions were conducted to assess the correlation between the independent variables of physical activity; time spent watching television and using the computer, and each of the five substance use dependent variables.

Results

Frequency of daily smoking was significantly associated with leisure time physical activity, while alcohol and cannabis use were not. Watching TV ≥ 2 hours per day was associated with heavy episodic drinking in the past month, no associations were found for smoking and cannabis use. Using the computer ≥ 2 hours per day was positively associated with daily smoking, drinking alcohol in the past month, heavy episodic drinking in the past month and ever being intoxicated, while cannabis use was not.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that leisure time physical activity is associated with daily cigarette smoking, and leisure time sedentary behaviour is associated with alcohol and tobacco use among adolescents. The results of our study show the need for the formation of suitable preventive measures concerning reduced sitting time as well as leisure time physical activity targeted to adolescents.     

The economic benefits of reducing physical inactivity: an Australian example

Background

Time spent watching television affects multiple aspects of child and adolescent health. Although a diverse range of factors have been found to be associated with young people's television viewing, parents and the home environment are particularly influential. However, little is known about whether parents, particularly those who are concerned about their child's television viewing habits, translate their concern into action by providing supportive home environments (e.g. rules restricting screen-time behaviours, limited access to screen-based media). The aim of this study was to examine associations between parental concerns for child television viewing and child television viewing and the home sedentary environment.

Methods

Parents of children aged 5-6 years ('younger' children, n = 430) and 10-12 years ('older children', n = 640) reported usual duration of their child's television (TV) viewing, their concerns regarding the amount of time their child spends watching TV, and on aspects of the home environment. Regression analyses examined associations between parental concern and child TV viewing, and between parental concern and aspects of the home environment. Analyses were stratified by age group.

Results

Children of concerned parents watched more TV than those whose parents were not concerned (B = 9.63, 95% CI = 1.58-17.68, p = 0.02 and B = 15.82, 95% CI = 8.85-22.80, p < 0.01, for younger and older children respectively). Parental concern was positively associated with younger children eating dinner in front of the television, and with parental restriction of sedentary behaviours and offering sedentary activities (i.e. TV viewing or computer use) as a reward for good behaviour among older and young children. Furthermore, parents of older children who were concerned had fewer televisions in the home and a lower count of sedentary equipment in the home.

Conclusions

Children of concerned parents watched more TV than those whose parents who were not concerned. Parents appear to recognise excessive television viewing in their children and these parents appear to engage in conflicting parental approaches despite these concerns. Interventions targeting concerned parents may be an innovative way of reaching children most in need of strategies to reduce their television viewing and harnessing this parental concern may offer considerable opportunity to change the family and home environment.     

Substance Use and Cumulative Exposure to American Society: Findings From Both Sides of the US–Mexico Border Region

Objectives. We investigated whether Mexican immigration to the United States exerts transnational effects on substance use in Mexico and the United States.Methods. We performed a cross-sectional survey of 2336 Mexican Americans and 2460 Mexicans in 3 Texas border metropolitan areas and their sister cities in Mexico (the US–Mexico Study on Alcohol and Related Conditions, 2011–2013). We collected prevalence and risk factors for alcohol and drug use; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, alcohol-use disorders; and 2 symptoms (hazardous use and quit or control) of drug use disorder across a continuum of migration experiences in the Mexican and Mexican American populations.Results. Compared with Mexicans with no migrant experience, the adjusted odds ratios for this continuum of migration experiences ranged from 1.10 to 8.85 for 12-month drug use, 1.09 to 5.07 for 12-month alcohol use disorder, and 1.13 to 9.95 for 12-month drug-use disorder. Odds ratios increased with longer exposure to US society. These findings are consistent with those of 3 previous studies.Conclusions. People of Mexican origin have increased prevalence of substance use and disorders with cumulative exposure to US society.During the past 25 years, epidemiological research in the United States has consistently found that alcohol and drug use and disorders of use among Mexican immigrants and Mexican Americans tend to be associated with increasing immersion into US society.1–8 More recently, transnational effects of migration on substance use in both the United States and Mexico have become apparent. First, in a comparable Mexican population without any migration experience as a reference group, it was found that Mexican immigrants in the United States and US-born persons of Mexican origin exhibited increased risk of alcohol and drug use.9,10 Second, it was also shown that, in Mexico, substance use of return migrants and families of migrants was also affected by this immigration flow.11,12 These findings suggest a transnational pattern whereby Mexican immigrants increase their use of substances while in the United States by means of early age at immigration and years living in the United States,13–15 and transmit, directly and indirectly, substance use behaviors back into Mexico. This conceptualization is intriguing, but the data provided so far are limited to studies either in the United States or in Mexico. The only previous binational study9 collected data from a wide range of communities in Mexico and the United States and evidence with greater geographic detail is needed to corroborate and extend our understanding.The border regions of Mexico and the United States are particularly important as settings in which the cultures of the 2 countries come into contact and as transit points for migrants moving in both directions. The border region is also filled with contrasts. The US counties are much richer than the Mexican municipalities, but some of the US counties in the border area are among the poorest in the United States. At the same time, some of the Mexican border municipalities are among the richest when compared with national Mexican averages. Research in this region has documented the impact that US nativity, age at immigration, and years living in the United States have in increasing alcohol and drug use and disorders among those of Mexican ancestry living in the US borderland.8,16–18 On the Mexican side of the border, research generally documented higher prevalence rates for substance use and disorders of use when compared with cities off the border or against national averages.19Previous research nevertheless lacks a binational approach—with a common framework and risk factors. Our project, the first simultaneous study that includes the dynamic experiences of contemporary Mexican immigration on both sides of the border, has started to shed new insights on the alleged differences of alcohol and drug use and disorders of use in the US–Mexico border area.20,21 Our main hypothesis is that with early age of immigration, and increasing time and contact with the US culture, alcohol use, drug use, alcohol use disorders (AUDs) and symptoms of drug use disorder (DUD) will increase along a continuum of immigration experiences in this transnational population. Our main goal is to report the prevalence of, and risk factors for, the occurrence of alcohol use, drug use, AUD, and symptoms of DUD for this population of Mexican ancestry. A second goal is to put these new results in the context of previous findings and to examine the consistency of risk estimates for substance use across the full spectrum of the Mexican immigrant groups.     

Correlates of body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio among Mexican women in the United States: implications for intervention development.

INTRODUCTION: This study contributes to our understanding of acculturation and obesity by examining the association between several measures of acculturation, including a bidimensional scale of acculturation, body mass index (BMI), and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). METHODS: Exploratory analyses were performed using baseline data from 357 Mexican women recruited into a Spanish-language randomized community trial. The women were randomly sampled by telephone and interviewed in their homes. Women's height, weight, waist, and hip were measured to obtain estimates of their BMI and WHR. A face-to-face interview collected data on dietary intake, physical activity, acculturation, and other demographic and psychosocial variables. RESULTS: Less than a quarter of the women were normal weight (39% overweight and 41% obese). Univariate analyses revealed that more years living in the United States and less integration into the Anglo culture were associated with a larger BMI and WHR. However, in the multivariate analyses, significant correlates of a larger BMI were less moderate physical activity and unemployment. There were trends linking a larger BMI with older age, no vigorous physical activity, more energy intake, and less integration into the Anglo culture. These same variables plus less household income were associated with a higher WHR. Exploratory analyses on acculturation revealed that bicultural Mexican-American women were more educated, more likely to be employed, reported a higher household income, and perceived fewer barriers to a healthy diet compared with traditional Mexican women. CONCLUSIONS: Intervention designed to prevent overweight/obesity should consider promoting maintenance of Mexican cultural practices, as well as teach women how to effectively integrate into the Anglo culture.     

Adolescent alcohol use in the Netherlands: the role of ethnicity,ethnic intermarriage,and ethnic school composition

Objective. To examine the association between ethnicity, ethnic intermarriage, ethnic composition of schools and adolescent alcohol use.

Design. Data were derived from the National Survey of Students in the Netherlands, a repeated, nationally representative, cross-sectional study of students aged 11–20 in secondary school. Surveys conducted in 1994, 1996, 1999, and 2001 were pooled, leading to a total of 30,346 native Dutch students and 6227 ethnic minority students. Alcohol use was based on whether the student consumed alcohol at all, drinking frequency, and drunkenness. Multilevel methods were applied.

Results. Ethnic minority students showed lower levels of alcohol use than Dutch students in each measure. Among ethnic minorities, the level of alcohol use was particularly low among students from a Muslim background. Students with ethnically mixed parents had higher levels of alcohol use than students with mono-ethnic parents. The larger the presence of Muslims in school, the lower the alcohol consumption of students from a Dutch and ethnic minority background.

Conclusions. Ethnic differences in alcohol consumption among students seem to reflect differential alcohol use norms prevalent in their parents' country of birth. Alcohol use norms are presumably stricter in families with mono-ethnic parents and in predominantly Muslim schools than in families with ethnically mixed parents and in schools with fewer Muslim students.     

Gender, acculturation and alcohol use among Latina/o adolescents: a multi-ethnic comparison

This is the first study to examine the relationship between acculturation and alcohol use by gender and ethnicity using a nationally representative sample of Hispanic and non-Hispanic white adolescents. Specifically, we use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to explore alcohol use and binge drinking for a sample that includes 6792 non-Hispanic whites, 910 Mexican Americans, 290 Cuban Americans, and 336 Puerto Ricans. Bivariate results reveal significant gender differences in alcohol use among first generation Mexican American, first generation Puerto Rican, and second generation Cuban American adolescents. In addition, these results indicate binge drinking differs significantly by gender among first generation Mexican American, first generation Cuban American, third plus generation Puerto Rican, and third plus generation non-Hispanic white adolescents. Multivariate logistic regression reveals that gender also moderates the effect of acculturation as well as ethnicity on alcohol use and abuse. Among both males and females, first generation immigrants are significantly less likely than third plus generation immigrants to use alcohol and binge drink while selective acculturation significantly reduces the odds of both behaviors. However, the effects of immigrant generation and selective acculturation on binge drinking are larger for females. Further, the trajectories that alcohol use and binge drinking follow with acculturation differ significantly by gender and ethnicity. These results reaffirm the need to further develop theoretical models and intervention strategies that are both gender-specific and culturally-specific, targeting high risk groups in particular in these efforts.     

Patterns of Tobacco and Alcohol Use Among Sedentary, Exercising, Nonathletic, and Athletic Youth

ABSTRACT: Through a statewide random design, 7,846 9th to 12th grade students in 81 South Carolina public schools were selected to complete the Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Mantel-Haenszel Chi-Square, general linear models, and logistic regression were used to examine the relation between the independent variables of race, gender, and physical activity status with the dependent variables of tobacco and alcohol use while controlling for race, gender, and participation in physical education classes. The six physical activity levels ranged from sedentary nonathletes to athletes participating on two or more sports teams. Highly active athletes drank more frequently than did low-activity nonathletes (p = .002) and sedentary nonathletes (p = .006), and they were more likely to hinge drink (p = .004). Athletic groups were less likely to smoke than were the nonathletic groups (p < .0001) with "sedentary nonathletes" the heaviest smokers of all groups. Athletes were more likely to use smokeless tobacco (p < .0001) than nonathletes although this difference disappeared when controlling for gender and race. This research supports other findings about prevalence of smokeless tobacco use among athletic youth. In addition, it reveals that athletic youth are at an increased risk of alcohol use and binge drinking. Possible factors such as the risk-taking tendencies of team sport athletes should be investigated.     

Tobacco counteradvertisements aimed at bicultural Mexican American youth: the impact of language and theme

The growing population of Mexican American youth and the increasing smoking rates in this population present a considerable public health challenge. Tobacco counteradvertisements have demonstrated their ability to shape attitudes, behavior, and public policy, but little is known about the most effective ways to adapt messages aimed at this audience. To explore key variables that can affect success, a study was conducted with 249 Mexican American middle-school youth from a U.S./Mexico border community to examine the effectiveness of language (English, Spanish, or a combination of English and Spanish) and theme (secondhand smoke, antitobacco social norms, and tobacco industry manipulation) in print tobacco counteradvertisements. Measures included ad preferences, acculturation, and tobacco-related attitudes and behavior. Results showed that although a large percentage identified with the Mexican American rather than the Anglo American culture and spoke Spanish in selected contexts, readability was greater for ads in English, and participants rated the English ads as most effective. The social norms counteradvertisement was preferred overall. Potential implications for health communication and policy are discussed.