Impact of Gender, Ethnicity, Meal Component, and Time Interval Between Eating and Reporting on Accuracy of Fourth-Graders’ Self-Reports of School Lunch

Objective To validate fourth-graders’ self-reports of school lunch by comparing their reports to lunch observations, and to determine the impact on accuracy of gender, ethnicity, meal component, and time interval between eating and reporting.Design Students were randomly selected, observed eating lunch, and interviewed the same day, next day, or Monday regarding Friday's lunch. Accuracy of reporting items was determined by tallying matched foods (items reported and observed), phantom foods (items reported but not observed), and omitted foods (items not reported but observed). Accuracy of reporting amount eaten was determined by calculating absolute and arithmetic differences.Subjects Subjects were 260 students: 89 same-day, 148 next-day, and 23 Monday recalls; 59 whites (30 boys) and 201 blacks (103 boys) from four schools.Statistical analyses Rates for matched, phantom, and omitted foods; analysis of variance; Friedman's nonparametric analog of analysis of variance; Student-Newman-Keuls’ post hoc comparisons.Results In regard to reporting items, the respective rates for matched, phantom, and omitted foods were 84%, 5%, and 16% for same-day recalls; 68%, 13%, and 32% for next-day recalls; and 38%, 48%, and 62% for Monday recalls. Rates for omitted and phantom foods were higher for Monday recalls than for next-day recalls, which were higher than for same-day recalls (P<.05 for all). In regard to reporting amounts, analysis by gender, ethnicity, and time interval failed to yield significant main or interaction effects. When children correctly reported items eaten, they were quite accurate in reporting amounts eaten. Omitted food rates were lowest for beverage, followed by entree, and highest for miscellaneous and condiment.Applications Even under the best conditions (ie, reporting within 90 minutes after eating school lunch), children have difficulty accurately reporting what they have eaten. As the time interval between eating and reporting increases, accuracy decreases markedly. Techniques that improve reporting of items eaten should result in improved accuracy of reporting amounts eaten. J Am Diet Assoc. 1997;97:1293-1298.     

Nutrition Intervention Program of the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study: A Self-Management Approach

Objective To characterize the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study nutrition intervention program by determining the frequency of intervention strategies used by the dietitians and the usefulness of program components as rated by participants.Design Dietitians recorded which of 32 intervention strategies they used at each monthly visit. Participants rated the usefulness of 19 program components.Subjects 840 adults with renal insufficiency.Intervention Participants were assigned randomly to usual-, low-, or very-low-protein diet groups. Each eating pattern also specified a phosphorus intake goal. Each participant met monthly with a dietitian for an average of 26 months.Statistical analyses Analyses of variance and χ² analyses.Results Dietitians used the following intervention strategies most often in all groups: providing feedback based on self-monitoring and/or food records, reviewing adherence or biochemistry data, providing low-protein foods, and reviewing graphs of adherence progress. In general, the dietitians used feedback, modeling, and support strategies more often, and knowledge and skills strategies less often, with participants who had to make the greatest reductions in protein intake and those with more advanced disease. In all groups, the dietitians’ use of knowledge and skills, feedback, and modeling strategies decreased over time (P<.001), whereas use of support strategies was maintained. The type and frequency of intervention strategies used by dietitians and the usefulness ratings of participants did not vary by educational level of the participant. Both self-monitoring and dietitian support were rated as “very useful” by 88% of the participants.Conclusions Three features were central to the MDRD Study nutrition intervention program: feedback, particularly from self-monitoring and from measures of adherence; modeling, particularly by providing low-protein food products; and dietitian support. We recommend the self-management approach. J Am Diet Assoc. 1995; 95:1288-1294.     

Salt Taste Perceptions and Preferences are Unrelated to Sodium Consumption in Healthy Older Adults

Objective age-related deficits in salt taste perception are said to increase preferences for salty foods, thereby leading potentially to greater sodium consumption. This study examined the link between salt taste perceptions and preferences and sodium intakes as a function of age and gender.Design We studied 24 young adults (aged 20 to 30 years) and 24 healthy older adults (aged 60 to 75 years). The subjects tasted and rated five sodium chloride solutions and eight samples of salted chicken broth containing from 0.04 to 0.64 mol/L sodium. Food intakes were assessed using a 24-hour food recall and 14 consecutive days of diet records.Results Older and younger subjects did not differ in their sensory evaluations of chicken broth, including ratings of the intensity of saltiness. Older subjects preferred less salty soups than did young adults. Hedonic response profiles for salt in soup were not related to daily sodium intakes as assessed by diet records.Applications Salt taste perceptions and preferences were unrelated to sodium intakes in young adults and in older respondents. Factors other than taste may influence dietary sodium consumption. J Am Diet Assoc. 1996; 96:471-474.     

Kindergarten Students’ Food Preferences are not Consistent with their Knowledge of the Dietary Guidelines

Objectives To evaluate kindergarten students’ understanding of the concepts and terminology in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans; to determine whether kindergarteners could name food sources of fat, salt, and sugar; and to find out how well they understood the relationship between diet, exercise, body fat, and health. Additionally, food preference information was collected so that kindergarteners’ knowledge about the Dietary Guidelines could be compared with their food choices.Design and subjects Focus-group interviews were conducted in two elementary schools with 12 groups of about five students each (n=62). Four classrooms were self-selected depending on the teacher's willingness to facilitate student participation; the sample was not random.Results Students understood the general relationship between food choices, exercise, body fat, and health. They were able to name foods high in salt, fat, and sugar and thought consumption of sugary or fatty foods should be limited. Nevertheless, their food preferences were not consistent with recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines to moderate foods high in these nutrients.Applications Nutrition educators should be aware that young children might not understand terms frequently used such as animal sources of foods or variety. Students know what to eat, but their practices are inconsistent with their knowledge. Providing information about what to do is not enough. To help students transfer factual information to personal dietary practices, nutrition educators need to teach them how to apply the Dietary Guidelines within their food environment while maintaining acceptability in regard to taste. J Am Diet Assoc. 1995; 95: 219-223.     

The effects of a reduced-sodium, high-potassium salt substitute on food taste and acceptability in rural northern China

A potassium chloride-containing salt substitute lowers blood pressure levels, but its overall acceptability has been of concern due to its potential adverse effects on food taste. In a large-scale, blinded randomised trial evaluating the comparative effects of a salt substitute (65 % sodium chloride, 25 % potassium chloride and 10 % magnesium sulphate) and a normal salt (100 % sodium chloride) on blood pressure, we collected data on the saltiness, flavour and overall acceptability of food. We performed this at baseline, 1, 6 and 12 months post-randomisation using 100 mm visual analogue scales for assessments of both home-cooked foods and a standard salty soup. The mean age of the 608 participants from rural northern China was 60 years and 56 % of them were females. In the primary analyses, the changes in the saltiness, flavour and overall acceptability of both home-cooked foods and a standard salty soup were not different between the randomised groups (all P>0.08). In the secondary analyses, weighting each of the data points according to the lengths of the respective follow-up intervals, the flavour of both home-cooked foods (mean difference = - 1.8 mm, P = 0.045) and a standard salty soup (mean difference = - 1.9 mm, P = 0.03) was slightly weaker in the salt substitute group. We conclude that salt substitution is both an effective and an acceptable means of blood pressure control. Possible small differences in flavour did not importantly deter the use of the salt substitute in this study group, although the acceptability of the salt substitute by a more general population group would need to be confirmed.     

Parents’ Restrictive Feeding Practices are Associated with Young Girls’ Negative Self-evaluation of Eating

Objective This study was conducted to determine whether parents’ restriction of young girls’ access to palatable foods promotes the consumption of those foods while evoking negative self-evaluation.Design Girls’ intake of 10 snack foods was measured immediately following a standard lunch, in a setting with free access to palatable snack foods. Girls’ self-evaluation about their eating was assessed following the free access snack session. In addition, reports of parental restriction were obtained from mothers, fathers, and girls.Participants Participants were 197 girls aged 4.6 to 6.4 years and their parents.Statistical analysis Structural equation modeling was used to test models describing relationships between parents’ restriction and girls’ eating.Results Following the standard lunch, girls’ snack food intake during the 10-minute free access session ranged from 0 to 436 kcal, with a mean of 123±7 kcal. Approximately half of the girls reported negative self-evaluation about eating 1 or more of the 10 foods provided. The revised path model indicated that parents’ restriction predicted both girls’ snack food intake and girls’ negative self-evaluation of eating. Girls’ negative self-evaluation of eating was not associated with the amount of food that they consumed when not hungry, but was linked to their perceptions of being restricted from those foods.Applications/conclusions These findings indicate that restricting young girls’ access to palatable foods may promote the intake of restricted foods and may also generate negative feelings about eating restricted foods. JAm DietAssoc. 2000;100:1341-1346.     

Food branding influences ad libitum intake differently in children depending on weight status. Results of a pilot study

Environmental changes have facilitated the rapid increase in childhood obesity. One such change is increased presence of food marketing which promotes intake of high-fat, energy-dense foods. This study tested the hypotheses that overweight (OW) children are more sensitive to the intake-enhancing effects of food branding than non-OW children, and that the relationship between weight status and intake of branded foods is mediated by level of food brand awareness. Forty-three non-OW (n = 23) and OW (n = 20) children from diverse ethnic backgrounds participated in four dinnertime visits to test their intake of meals where food brands were present (“branded”) or absent (“unbranded”). Food brand awareness was assessed by testing children's abilities to match food brand logos with correct foods and name specific brands from recall. Weight and height were measured on the first visit to determine BMI z-score and weight status. OW children consumed significantly more energy per meal than non-OW. Child age and brand awareness were positively associated. OW children consumed an additional 40 kcal in branded vs. unbranded meals whereas non-OW children consumed 45 kcal less in branded meals. Overweight children showed greater responsiveness to food branding, and they may be at risk in environments that are highly inundated with messages about food.     

Olfactory Dysfunction and Related Nutritional Risk in Free-Living, Elderly Women

Objective/design To determine the nutritional risk associated with measured olfactory dysfunction in free-living, elderly women through analytic observational methods. Olfactory perception was measured orthonasally (odor: butanol threshold and odor identification) and retronasally (flavor: orange flavor threshold in sweetened gelatin).Setting/subjects Elderly women were recruited from New Haven, Conn, through posters and direct contact. Screening of 120 elderly women identified 80 with high personal functioning to participate (mean AGE=76±6 years, RANGE=65 to 93 years). All data were collected in subjects’ homes.Main outcome measures Nutritional risk was assessed in several ways: food behavior questionnaire; food preference questionnaire; interviews based on the National Cancer Institute food frequency questionnaire; five nonconsecutive, 24-hour food records; and weight, height, waist, and hip measurements.Statistical analyses Correlation and regression analyses determined the separate association between olfactory perception and nutrition variables.Results Nearly half of the women (37 of 80) had olfactory dysfunction. The following nutritional risk pattern was associated with lower olfactory perception: lower interest in food-related activities (eg, enjoying cooking, eating a wide variety of foods); lower preference for foods with predominant sour/bitter taste (eg, citrus fruits) or pungency (eg, horseradish); higher intake of sweets; less intake of low-fat milk products; and nutrient intake profile indicative of higher risk for cardiac disease.Applications Olfactory dysfunction may make it more difficult for elderly women to maintain a diet to control risk for chronic disease. Practitioners should target nutrition intervention to elderly women with measured or self-rated difficulty in perceiving odors or olfactory flavor. Capitalizing on primary-taste quality and texture may help to compensate for the loss of olfactory flavor perception. J Am DietAssoc. 1995; 95:879-884.     

Measuring the Food Environment: Shelf Space of Fruits,Vegetables, and Snack Foods in Stores

Dietary patterns may be influenced by the availability and accessibility within stores of different types of foods. However, little is known about the amount of shelf space used for healthy and unhealthy foods in different types of stores. We conducted measurements of the length of shelf space used for fruits, vegetables, and snack foods items in 419 stores in 217 urban census tracts in southern Louisiana and in Los Angeles County. Although supermarkets offered far more shelf space of fruits and vegetables than did other types of stores, they also devoted more shelf space to unhealthy snacks (mean 205 m for all of these items combined) than to fruits and vegetables (mean 117 m, p < 0.001). After supermarkets, drug stores devoted the most shelf space to unhealthy items. The ratio of the total shelf space for fruits and vegetables to the total shelf space for these unhealthy snack items was the lowest (0.10 or below) and very similar in convenience stores, drug stores, and liquor stores, was in a middle range (0.18 to 0.30) in small food stores, and was highest in medium-sized food stores (0.40 to 0.61) and supermarkets (0.55 to 0.72). Simple measurements of shelf space can be used by researchers to characterize the healthfulness of the food environment and by policymakers to establish criteria for favorable policy treatment of stores.

Children’s dietary recalls: the salience of entree and liking for foods on accuracy and order of reporting

This study investigated the impact of entree and liking for foods on the accuracy and order of reporting on children’s school lunch recalls. Data were collected during a series of studies to investigate children’s lunch recalls from a cognitive processing approach to understand better how children remember what they have eaten. Fourth-grade children from four schools were randomly selected, observed eating lunch, and interviewed the same (n = 89) or next (n = 148) day. Foods were classified as matches (observed and reported eaten), omissions (observed but not reported eaten), or phantoms (not observed but reported eaten), and corresponding rates were calculated. Statistical analyses included z tests and permutation tests. For same- and next-day recalls, children were more likely to report entree than other meal components earlier in the interview. For next-day recalls, the phantom rate for the remaining items was lower for children who reported entrees accurately versus inaccurately. For items liked “a lot” compared with items “not liked a lot,” match rates were higher for next-day recalls, and phantom rates were lower for both same- and next-day recalls. Because entree and liking for foods appear to play salient roles in children’s dietary recalls, these results provide guidance regarding the development of specific prompts to increase the accuracy of children’s dietary recalls.     

Exercise condition affects hedonic responses to sodium in a sport drink

We measured the dose–response effects of drink sodium content (treatments: 0 mmol/l, 18 mmol/l, 30 mmol/l, 40 mmol/l, and 60 mmol/l) on sensory perception and palatability in athletes at four time points: in a sedentary laboratory setting (non-exercise context), pre-exercise, and after 60 min and 120 min of aerobic-circuit exercise. Fifty-five triathletes and runners (30 males, 39.7 (8.0 S.D.) years; 25 females, 37.2 (9.2 S.D.) years) sip-tested chilled 6% carbohydrate drinks varying in sodium content during sedentary and pre-exercise conditions and had ad lib access to drinks during exercise conditions. There was a significant intensity discrimination among all sodium levels (p ≤ 0.001) except 0 mmol/l vs. 18 mmol/l, and 30 mmol/l vs. 40 mmol/l. There were no significant differences among time points for perceived salt intensity. However, overall drink acceptability and liking of saltiness of the 60 mmol/l drink was greater pre-exercise, after 60 min and after 120 min of exercise than during the sedentary condition. The environmental cues of the exercise context may be associated with an increase in palatability of the drink containing 60 mmol/l of sodium over the sedentary condition. Sensory measures provided better differentiation (were more sensitive to treatment effects) among salt concentrations than was fluid intake. Neither thirst nor sweat loss were related to drink palatability or liking of saltiness. Liking of saltiness but not thirst was related to fluid intake. There was a significant negative correlation between sodium ingested (mg/kg) and percent body mass loss.     

Dietary Change and Obesity Associated with Glucose Intolerance in Alaska Natives

Objective To investigate frequency of food intake, body weight, and glucose intolerance in Alaska Natives.Design Height, weight, and random blood glucose levels were measured and a frequency-of-food-intake questionnaire was obtained. This questionnaire classified persons as consumers of indigenous foods or nonindigenous foods within three food groups. Those with a random blood glucose measurement ≥6.72 mmol/L received an oral glucose tolerance test.Setting Community screening in 15 villages in Alaska.Subjects Nutrition screenings were done for 1,124 Alaska Native residents aged 20 years or older. An oral glucose tolerance test was done for 202 subjects.Outcomes measured Subjects were classified as consumers of indigenous or nonindigenous foods within three food groups. A diagnosis of non–insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) was made on the basis of World Health Organization criteria. A determination of overweight was made on the basis of National Center for Health Statistics criteria.Statistical analysis A χ² test with Yates correction, t test, and linear regression, with two-sided P values.Results Athabascan Indians had twice the rate of NIDDM as Yup’ik Eskimos with significantly higher frequency of non-indigenous food intake, plus lower frequency of indigenous carbohydrate and fat intake. Subjects ≤30 years old consumed significantly more nonindigenous protein and fat and low-nutrient-density carbohydrates than those ≥60 years old. Persons who had glucose intolerance reported significantly greater consumption of nonindigenous protein and less seal oil. Incidence of overweight was significantly higher than was found 25 years ago. Participants with glucose intolerance were significantly more overweight than others.Conclusion A pattern of increased frequency of non-indigenous protein, low-nutrient-density carbohydrate, and fat intake with less indigenous carbohydrate and fat consumption was found in subjects ≤30 years old and in association with the higher rate of NIDDM found in the Athabascan Indians. Persons with glucose intolerance were significantly more overweight than others.Applications Although the nutritional value of indigenous foods for reducing disease risk should be promoted, nutrition education, especially among young adults, should also include building skills to select and prepare nonindigenous foods to attain a healthful diet. Although snacking is a concern, dietary fat was the most significant factor in obesity and NIDDM. J Am Diet Assoc. 1995; 95:676-682.     

Food perception at lunchtime does not depend on the nutritional and perceived characteristics of breakfast

Breakfast consumption can entail nutritional advantages positively affecting food choices. This study investigated the effect of minor changes in breakfast composition on the perceived attributes of foods, both at breakfast and at lunchtime. Four breakfasts were defined considering nutritional and perceptual factors. Three breakfasts varied just for a single cereal-based chocolate-containing food item, while a control breakfast mimicked fasting conditions. Breakfast perception was assessed before and after consumption. Subjects rated breakfast energy content on the basis of single items, while judged breakfast healthiness as a whole, suggesting that the combination of different ingredients can modify the perceived health value of foods. Additionally, 4?h after breakfast, a perceptual evaluation of lunch-related food images was performed, without differences among breakfasts. This study extends current knowledge on the relationship between subjective perceptual attributes and objective energy value and food composition, as well as on breakfast impact on food perception at lunchtime.     

Dietary Assessment Instruments are Susceptible to Intervention-associated Response Set Bias

Objective Evaluations of trials of the effectiveness of dietary intervention programs may be compromised by response set biases, such as those attributable to social desirability. Participants who receive a behavioral intervention may bias their reports of diet to appear in compliance with intervention goals. This study examined whether responses to standard dietary assessment instruments could be affected by a brief dietary intervention.Design We assigned 192 undergraduate students randomly to (a) see a 17-minute videotape on the consequences of eating a high-fat diet or a placebo videotape on workplace management and (b) receive preintervention and post-intervention assessments or only postintervention assessment. Dietary assessments included 4 independent measures of fat intake.Results Among women, bias (intervention minus control) was −9.7 g fat (from a short food frequency questionnaire) and −0.6 high-fat foods (from a questionnaire about use of 23 foods in the previous day) (P<.05 for both). No results were significant among men or for 2 instruments that measured more qualitative aspects of fat-related dietary habits.Applications Even a modest dietary intervention can affect responses to dietary assessment instruments. Nutritionists should recognize that assessment of adherence to dietary change recommendations, when based on dietary self-report, can be overestimated as a result of response set biases. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998;98:40-43.     

Frequent Canned Food Use is Positively Associated with Nutrient-Dense Food Group Consumption and Higher Nutrient Intakes in US Children and Adults

In addition to fresh foods, many canned foods also provide nutrient-dense dietary options, often at a lower price, with longer storage potential. The aim of this study was to compare nutrient-dense food group intake and nutrient intake between different levels of canned food consumption in the US. Consumption data were collected for this cross-sectional study from 9761 American canned food consumers (aged two years and older) from The NPD Group’s National Eating Trends^® (NET^®) database during 2011–2013; and the data were assessed using The NPD Group’s Nutrient Intake Database. Canned food consumers were placed into three groups: Frequent Can Users (≥6 canned items/week); n = 2584, Average Can Users (3–5 canned items/week); n = 4445, and Infrequent Can Users (≤2 canned items/week); n = 2732. The results provide evidence that Frequent Can Users consume more nutrient-dense food groups such as fruits, vegetables, dairy products, and protein-rich foods, and also have higher intakes of 17 essential nutrients including the shortfall nutrients—potassium, calcium and fiber—when compared to Infrequent Can Users. Therefore, in addition to fresh foods, diets higher in nutrient-dense canned food consumption can also offer dietary options which improve nutrient intakes and the overall diet quality of Americans.     

Consumption of High Fat Foods Influences Taste Preferences

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if frequent consumption of high fat foods would influence the acceptance of a fat modified food. Subjects (N = 80) completed a questionnaire to determine frequency of use of 15 high fat and 15 low fat foods and reasons for their use. Subjects were divided into frequent and infrequent consumers of high fat foods and asked to rate the acceptability of a low and high fat version of a casserole using a nine-point hedonic scale. There were no significant differences in acceptability scores between the infrequent and frequent consumers of high fat foods when evaluating the low fat casserole (6.9 ± 1.5 vs. 7.0 ± 1.1). However, the frequent consumers rated the overall acceptability of the high fat casserole significantly higher than the infrequent customers (7.4 ± 1.0 vs. 6.8 ± 1.6, P = 0.03). As health conscious individuals eat fewer high fat foods and more low fat foods, taste preferences for fat may change.     

Positive- and negative peer modelling effects on young children's consumption of novel blue foods

Objective: The effects of positive- and negative peer modelling on children's consumption of a novel blue food, presented in each of four snack meals during an “activity” day, were evaluated. It was predicted that: (i) novel food consumption would increase after positive modelling, but decrease after negative modelling; (ii) modelling effects would generalise to a second novel blue food when participants were alone when they ate their snack; (iii) that positive modelling would reverse the effects of negative modelling. Design: A mixed design was employed with random assignment to either Groups A, B, or C (equal numbers of males and females per group). Within groups, each participant received the novel food on four snack occasions. Group A received positive modelling of blue food consumption on the first and third occasions, but were alone when they received the foods on the second and fourth occasions; Group B had negative modelling on the first occasion, positive modelling on the third, and ate alone on the second and fourth; Group C ate alone on all four occasions. To measure generalisation, an additional blue food was presented in all second and fourth “alone” occasions. Participants: Thirty-five 5–7-year olds took part in Study 1, and 44 3–4-year olds in Study 2. Results: All main predictions were confirmed except that positive peer modelling did not reverse the effects of negative modelling in the 3–4-year olds. Conclusion: Negative peer modelling inhibits novel food consumption, and its effects are particularly difficult to reverse in younger children.     

Does Responsiveness to Basic Tastes Influence Preadolescents’ Food Liking? Investigating Taste Responsiveness Segment on Bitter-Sour-Sweet and Salty-Umami Model Food Samples

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationships between taste responsiveness and food liking in preadolescents. Model food samples of grapefruit juice (GF) and vegetable broth (VB) modified with four additions of sucrose and sodium chloride, respectively, were employed. Intensity perception for sweetness, sourness, and bitterness were measured in GF while saltiness and umami were measured in VB. The children (N = 148) also completed food choice, familiarity, stated liking and neophobia questionnaires. The test was conducted at school, with instructions provided remotely via video call. Four segments were defined differing in basic taste responsiveness. Segments and sucrose concentrations significantly affected liking for GF, while no significant effect of segments and sodium chloride concentrations occurred on liking for VB. An increasing sucrose concentration was positively associated with liking for GF only in the segment with low responsiveness to bitter and sour tastes. No significant differences across segments were found for food choice, familiarity, stated liking, and neophobia. Conclusively, relationships between taste responsiveness and liking are product and basic taste-dependent in addition to being subject-dependent. Strategies to improve acceptance by using sucrose as a suppressor for warning sensations of bitterness and sourness can be more or less effective depending on individual responsiveness to the basic tastes.     

Acceptance of quantity recipes with zero added salt by a military population

The average civilian young man consumes approximately 5.5 g sodium daily in food plus an additional 20% as added salt. The average intake of military personnel may exceed this civilian level. The Surgeons General of the Military Services established 1,700 mg sodium per 1,000 kcal as the goal for sodium content in menus served in military dining facilities. We tested the acceptability of quantity recipes with zero added salt and control recipes with added salt in military dining facilities. Twenty-eight test recipes with zero added salt were prepared and offered on the regular serving line. Military personnel selecting the test items rated them for acceptability on a nine-point hedonic scale. Only 6 of the 28 recipes with zero added salt were rated significantly less acceptable than the control recipes. Chemical analysis of the test recipes showed an 11% to 87% reduction in sodium and a 28% to 80% reduction in chloride. Our results indicate that dietitians and/or foodservice managers can produce quantity food recipes that are reduced in sodium and acceptable to customers.     

Taste responses to saltiness among hypertensive subjects under different therapeutic regimens

Dietary sodium restriction is increasingly regarded as important in the prevention and treatment of essential hypertension. However, low-sodium diets are frequently considered unpalatable and therefore unfeasible. The objectives of this study were to determine (a) whether hypertensives, treated and untreated, differ in saltiness taste perception from age-matched normotensive controls and (b) whether sodium reduction can be accomplished by substituting another taste stimulus without reducing apparent saltiness and palatability. Subjects included 72 hypertensives, 44 to 69 years old, divided among three treatment groups; 25 age-matched normotensive controls; and an additional 21 normotensives, 20 to 43 years old, to provide an age continuum for evaluating age effects. Taste responses were measured in terms of saltiness intensity and preference using tomato juice varying systematically in sodium chloride and citric acid content. No significant differences were found between normotensives and hypertensives. No significant effects were associated with blood pressure status, therapeutic regimen, age, sex, race, or anthropometric measurements. Both sodium chloride and citric acid were main effects for saltiness, allowing a trade-off between salt and acid. Addition of citric acid permitted 50% reduction of sodium content in tomato juice without disturbing palatability criteria. Results provide a model for modifying other processed foods.