A radiological analysis of lateral ligament injuries of the ankle

Patients who presented within 5 days of an inversion injury to the ankle joint, were clinically selected for early radiological investigation and diagnosis of rupture of the lateral ligament of the ankle. Stress tenography was performed in 142 cases, and normal ranges for talar tilt and anterior draws were established in 216 normal ankles. In addition 38 cadaveric ankles were examined by peroneal tenography. No normal connection between the tendon sheath and the ankle joint was demonstrated. Sixty-five patients had positive peroneal tenograms; nine of these were positive only after manipulation. No complications occurred. Surgery was performed on 20 patients and demonstrated that common peroneal tenography was 95% accurate in diagnosing rupture of the calcaneo-fibular ligament. Of the 19 patients with proven calcaneo-fibular ligament rupture, six had a positive anterior draw sign, and nine had talar tilt. In this series both the talar tilt and anterior draw signs were found to be inaccurate. Common peroneal tenography is recommended as the method of choice for demonstrating acute rupture of the calcaneo-fibular component of the lateral ligament.     

Bandverletzungen des Sprunggelenks

The diagnosis of lateral collateral ankle ligament trauma is based on patient history, clinical examination and clinical stress tests. If the clinical stress test is positive, stress radiography can be performed. There is, however, no consensus about the usefulness of stress radiography in acute ankle sprain, and in particular about the cut-off talar tilt angle beyond which a two-ligament rupture would be certain, ranging from 5 degrees to 30 degrees. Today, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is not used in this area, although it does allow controlled positioning of the foot and defined section visualization of injured lateral collateral ankle ligaments. In acute and chronic sinus tarsi injuries, MRI forms the established basis for diagnostic imaging, and can provide a definitive answer in most cases. MRI is also the method of choice for chronic posttraumatic pain with anterolateral impingement after rupture of the anterior talofibular ligament. Generally, for the evaluation of acute ankle injuries, MRI has developed to be the most important second-step procedure when projection radiology is non-diagnostic.     

慢性踝关节外侧不稳定的手术治疗

报告了１５例慢性踝关节外侧不稳定的病例。结果表明，跟腓韧带、距腓前韧带松弛引起踝关节反复扭伤、疼痛，提示外踝关节不稳定，距骨斜角超过５°则提示外踝韧带断裂。介绍了一种修补外踝韧带的手术方法，术后效果较佳。     

Graded stress radiography in acute injury to the lateral ligaments of the ankle

The diagnostic accuracy of graded stress radiography in 26 patients with acute injury to the lateral ankle ligaments has been compared with findings at arthrography and surgery. Measuring talar tilt angles and anterior talar displacement over a range of pressures applied to the distal tibia using a commercially available stress device allows diagnostic distinction between isolated anterior talofibular ligament injury and a combined lesion that involves the calcaneofibular ligament. The results compare well with arthrographic and surgical findings.     

Anatomical reconstruction of the lateral ligaments of the ankle with a gracilis autograft: a new technique using an interference fit anchoring system

BACKGROUND: Few anatomical and minor invasive procedures have been reported for surgical reconstruction of the lateral ligaments to treat lateral instability of the ankle. Furthermore, there are no standards according to which ligaments should be reconstructed. HYPOTHESIS: A new technique for anatomically reconstructing the lateral ligaments of the ankle using an interference fit anchoring system and determining which ligaments need to be reconstructed according to the results of standard stress radiography of the talocrural and subtalar joints will be effective for treating lateral instability of the ankle. STUDY DESIGN: Case series; level of evidence, 4. METHODS: Twenty-one patients with lateral instability of the ankle underwent surgery using the proposed interference fit anchoring system. Standard stress radiographs of the subtalar joint were performed, and if the talocalcaneal angle was less than 10 degrees , only the anterior talofibular ligament was reconstructed; if there was a 10 degrees or greater opening of the talocalcaneal angle, both the anterior talofibular ligament and the calcaneofibular ligament were reconstructed. RESULTS: In the 17 patients who received only the anterior talofibular ligament reconstruction, the mean talar tilt angle on standard stress radiography of the talocrural joint was 14.5 degrees +/- 1.7 degrees before surgery and 2.6 degrees +/- 0.8 degrees 2 years after surgery (P < .0001). For the 4 patients who had both the anterior talofibular ligament and calcaneofibular ligament reconstructed, the mean talar tilt angle was 16.5 degrees +/- 1.5 degrees before surgery and 3.0 degrees +/- 0.5 degrees 2 years after surgery (P = .0015). The overall mean talocalcaneal angle on standard stress radiography of the subtalar joint was 11.3 degrees +/- 1.4 degrees before surgery and 3.5 degrees +/- 0.8 degrees 2 years after surgery (P = .0060). CONCLUSION: The proposed system has several advantages, including anatomical reconstruction with normal stability and range of motion restored, the need for only a small incision during the reconstruction, and sufficient strength at the tendon graft-bone tunnel junction, in comparison with the tension strength of the lateral ligaments of the ankle.     

Ankle instability: evaluation of the lateral ligaments

Bilateral ankle stress testing was performed on 25 subjects in a device which controlled position of the foot and the amount of force applied during the examination. Both inversion testing in the anteroposterior plane and anterior drawer testing in the lateral plane were performed in the same group of symptom-free patients. The reproducibility of the test was demonstrated. Previous history of injury, left vs. right handedness, side and anthropometric measurements did not affect the test. There was no difference in the inversion test between ankles tested in neutral and plantar flexion. In functionally normal ankles, the range of inversion "talar tilt" was 0 to 18 degrees while the maximum of anterior displacement on drawer testing was 3 mm. The effective stiffness of the anterior talofibular ligament was thus computed as 65 +/- 34 N/m. Anterior drawer testing appears to evaluate lateral ligamentous integrity of the ankle more critically than the talar tilt test.     

Akutes Trauma des Sprunggelenks

The diagnosis of lateral collateral ankle ligament trauma is based on patient history, clinical examination, and clinical stress tests. If the clinical stress test is positive, stress radiography could be performed. There is no consensus about the usefulness of stress radiography in acute ankle sprain, particularly about the cut-off talar tilt angle beyond which a two-ligament rupture would be certain, ranging from 5 degrees to 30 degrees. Today MRI is not used for this indication, although it allows, with controlled positioning of the foot and with defined sections, visualization of injured lateral collateral ankle ligaments. In ankle injuries, plain radiographs form the established basis of diagnostic imaging and can provide definitive answers in most cases. CT is used in complex fractures for complete visualization. MRI is the method of choice for several diagnostic problem cases, including occult fractures and post-traumatic avascular necrosis. In tendon injuries, MRI is important if ultrasound is not diagnostic. Generally, for the evaluation of acute ankle injuries, MRI is the most important second-step procedure when radiographs are nondiagnostic.     

Reconstruction of the lateral ankle ligaments. A biomechanical analysis.

The purpose of this study was to perform a biomechanical analysis of several commonly performed operative procedures used to stabilize the lateral ankle. We performed the Evans, Watson-Jones, and Chrisman-Snook procedures on 15 cadaveric ankles and tested the ankles for stability, motion, and isometry of graft placement. The Evans procedure allowed increased anterior displacement, internal rotation, and tilt of the talus when compared to ankles with intact ligaments. Subtalar joint motion was restricted by the Evans procedure. The Watson-Jones procedure controlled internal rotation and anterior displacement of the talus, but was less effective in controlling talar tilt and also restricted subtalar joint motion. The Chrisman-Snook procedure allowed increased internal rotation and anterior displacement of the talus when compared to ankles with intact ligaments. The procedure was effective in limiting talar tilt, but restricted subtalar joint motion. Based on the biomechanical data obtained, we devised a lateral ankle reconstruction with bone tunnels that reproduce the anatomic orientation of both the anterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments. This ankle ligament reconstruction resists anterior displacement, internal rotation, and talar tilt without restricting subtalar joint motion. Clinical relevance: We found considerable mechanical differences among the more commonly performed lateral ankle reconstructions. It is possible to locate bone tunnels and graft placement so that a more anatomic configuration is achieved.     

Early mobilization versus immobilization after ankle ligament stabilization

Functional outcome, stability at radiographic investigation and ankle joint torque after anatomical reconstruction of the lateral ankle ligaments were evaluated in patients with early postoperative mobilization versus those with cast immobilization. Thirty patients with chronic lateral ligament instability of the ankle underwent anatomical reconstruction of the ligaments. Postoperatively the patients were randomly allocated to two groups: Group A (n=15) were immobilized in a below-knee plaster for 6 weeks and Group B (n=15) underwent early controlled range of motion training using an Air-Cast ankle brace. The functional results were evaluated using a scoring scale and objective results using standardized stress radiographs. Also eccentric and concentric muscle torque at 60 degrees/s was measured in plantar flexion and dorsiflexion, respectively. The functional results were satisfactory in 12/15 ankles in Group A and 14/15 in Group B (n.s.). All the patients with satisfactory results regained normal range of motion. Patients with unsatisfactory results had either residual pain or recurrent instability. In Group B, the strength measurements revealed significantly higher peak torque values after three months in plantar flexion at 60 degrees/s. Six months postoperatively, the torque values did not differ significantly between the groups. Also, there was no group difference in the laxity of the ankle joint, including both anterior talar translation test and talar tilt test, at the two-year follow-up. One patient had a superficial wound infection. We conclude that after the reconstruction of chronic lateral ligament instability of the ankle the functional and stability results were equally good with early postoperative mobilization and 6-week immobilization. However, using early mobilization plantar flexion strength was regained earlier than with cast immobilization, without any risk of short- or medium-term complications, such as increased ankle laxity. We recommend early mobilization after anatomical reconstruction of the lateral ankle ligaments.     

Surgical treatment of chronic lateral instability of the ankle joint. A new procedure

Sixty patients with chronic lateral functional and mechanical instability of the ankle joint were treated with shortening and reinsertion of the lateral ankle ligaments. All patients were followed prospectively for 2 to 5 years (mean, 3 years 6 months). We found the functional results to be excellent or good in 53 patients (88%). Patients with unsatisfactory results had either generalized joint hypermobility or long-standing ligament insufficiency. Anterior talar translation (ATT) and talar tilt (TT) were measured radiologically on standardized radiographs. Patients with excellent and good functional results had better mechanical stability, both ATT and TT, than those with fair and poor functional results. A good correlation was found between clinical, functional, and radiological results. In conclusion we found that reconstruction of the ankle stability by shortening and reinsertion of the lateral ankle ligaments is a safe and simple method and is a good alternative to other more complex methods of ligament reconstruction. The method should, however, be used with great care in patients with generalized joint hypermobility or in patients with long-standing ligament insufficiency.     

The radiological functional testing in fibular ligament lesions--a critical analysis and clinical study

Injuries to the lateral ligaments of the ankle require an accurate diagnosis, especially because most injuries to one ligament are not treated surgically any more. Different stress devices are in use for an objective and standardised assessment of the instability of the ankle joint. In a group of 76 patients with injuries to their lateral ligaments of the ankle we compared posttraumatic instability by radiological stress test as done by hand or by a Telos stress device. In 25 patients treated by surgery an additional intraoperative stress X-ray (talar tilt) was performed. The results of the instability tests done by hand versus those obtained with a Telos stress device showed a poor correlation (r = 0.786). An analogous result was obtained by comparing the Telos device stress views to the intraoperative stress controls done by hand (r = 0.771). Only the pre- and intraoperative measurements by hand showed a good correlation (r = 0.958). The results are discussed with reference to a biomechanical model and recommendations for routine diagnosis are proposed.     

Clinical association of acute lateral ankle sprain with syndesmotic involvement: a stress radiography and magnetic resonance imaging study

BACKGROUND: Information concerning the clinical association between syndesmosis injury and grade of lateral ankle ligament damage would aid in the diagnosis and treatment of ankle sprains. HYPOTHESIS: Evaluation of lateral ligament injury in terms of percentage tear of both the anterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments can provide information on the extent of syndesmotic involvement. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: Twenty-five patients volunteered to have magnetic resonance imaging examinations performed and 21 volunteered to undergo graded stress radiographs. Talar tilt angles were measured from radiographs taken with 0, 6, 9, 12, and 15 daN of force applied medially just above the ankle joint, and the percentage of ligament tear and grade of injury were determined. Scans were obtained with the foot in neutral and plantar flexion to image the anterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments. RESULTS: Grades of lateral ligament injury determined by magnetic resonance imaging and graded stress radiography were the same. The extent of syndesmotic injury could be assessed for all patients. CONCLUSIONS: Intact tibiofibular ligaments were found equally frequently among patients with normal or any grade of lateral ligament damage, but the more severe injuries to the syndesmotic ligaments were associated with normal or minimally traumatized lateral ligaments. The inverse correlation can be explained on the basis of the difference between the mechanisms that precipitate these injuries.     

半腱肌移植重建踝关节外侧副韧带及踝关节不稳

目的 探讨半腱肌移植修复陈旧性踝关节外侧副韧带损伤及踝关节不稳的有效性.方法 选择陈旧性踝关节外侧副韧带损伤患者2例,其中男1例,女1例;男25岁,女17岁.左侧1例,右侧1例.患者入院前均有2年以上反复踝部旋后位扭伤的病史.踝部损伤为Ⅲ度(美国足踝外科学院分度);前抽屉试验及距骨倾斜试验阳性.应力X线片显示距骨倾斜平均21°,且在侧位片显示距骨前脱位.2例均采用同侧自体半腱肌肌腱移植重建踝关节外侧副韧带.结果 2例平均随访8个月.患足局部无肿痛,行走正常,踝关节主动活动与被动活动良好,患足前抽屉试验及距骨倾斜试验阴性,应力X线片检查显示距骨无前脱位,距骨倾斜角＜5°.根据Mazur疗效评分标准,优1例,良1例.患者对踝关节功能主观满意.结论 (1)踝关节外侧副韧带损伤是导致慢性踝关节不稳,甚至踝关节骨性关节炎的常见原因;(2)Brostr(o)m法仍不失为修复新鲜踝关节外侧副韧带损伤的有效方法,但对陈旧性损伤无效.(3)采用自体半腱肌肌腱修复重建陈旧性踝关节外侧副韧带的方法简单,有效,对于治疗踝关节不稳、防止踝关节骨性关节炎的发生具有重要的作用.     

Quantitative assessment of mechanical laxity in the functionally unstable ankle

PURPOSE: Delineating between functional and mechanical instability in those with chronic ankle dysfunction is a challenging task. Current methods of assessing ankle ligamentous laxity are subjective in nature and limit our ability to identify the site and extent of instability; therefore, a need exists for objective laxity measurements. The purpose of this study was to determine whether subjects with self-reported, functional ankle instability (FAI) demonstrated increased mechanical laxity when tested with instrumented arthrometry and stress radiography. METHODS: Both ankles were tested in 51 subjects with self-reported unilateral FAI. An instrumented ankle arthrometer measured ankle-subtalar joint motion for total anteroposterior (AP) displacement (mm) during loading at 125 N and total inversion-eversion (I-E) rotation (degrees of ROM) during loading at 4 N x m. The Telos GA-II/E device provided either anterior or lateral stress (15 kp) while fluoroscopic radiographs were recorded for anterior displacement (mm) and talar tilt (degrees). RESULTS: The arthrometry measurements of anterior and total AP displacement and the radiographic measurements of anterior displacement were greater (P < 0.05) in the FAI ankles when compared with the uninjured ankles. There were no differences in total I-E rotation, inversion rotation, or talar tilt between ankles when analyzed with either measurement technique. CONCLUSION: The ability to objectively measure mechanical instability in the functionally unstable ankle is important to understanding the nature and cause of the instability. Ankle arthrometry and stress radiographic measurements are objective assessment tools for mechanical laxity. Despite finding greater laxity in the functionally unstable ankle, the clinical significance of the observed displacement remains unanswered. Further research is needed to determine the amount of laxity that constitutes mechanical instability and how this relates to FAI.     

中国青年距骨斜角正常值测定

目的 :测定中国健康青年踝关节距骨斜角正常值范围 ,从影像学方面提供急性外踝韧带损伤导致外踝不稳的定量诊断方法。方法 :随机选择无外踝韧带损伤史的健康青年学生 2 2 4人(男 1 1 8人 ,女 1 0 6人 ) ,年龄 2 0～2 3岁 ,共计 445例踝关节。在髋、膝屈曲 90°、踝跖屈 3 0°位 ,采用踝关节加压内翻拍片架拍踝跖屈内翻应力正位X线片。结果 :445例踝关节中 ,距骨斜角最小 0°,最大 1 1°,男性踝关节 2 3 5例距骨斜角 x±s为 3 99°± 1 91°,M±Q为 4°± 2°,P95为 7°;女性踝关节2 1 0例距骨斜角 x±s为 4 3 9°± 2 2 3°,M±Q为 4°±3°,P95为 8°。结论 :中国健康青年踝关节距骨斜角正常值范围为 0°～8°,急性外踝韧带损伤患者距骨斜角 >4°而≤ 8°时 ,结合临床严重的体征可考虑韧带断裂 ,距骨斜角 >8°时 ,可认为至少有一条外踝韧带断裂     

The treatment of fibular ligament lesions using the Ortho-Rehab shoe

In a prospective study we examined 46 patients (14-49 years of age) with fresh ruptures of the lateral ligaments of the ankle (talar tilt greater than or equal to 10 degrees). Treatment consisted in six weeks of taping combined with wearing of a special rehabilitation shoe (Ortho Rehab). 28 patients were treated conservatively and 18 had an operative repair of their ruptured ligaments. After 8 weeks every patient was clinically controlled. Until now 35 patients were reevaluated more than one year after injury. Treatment was judged as very comfortable and positive. Working capacity was achieved after an average of 14.8 days and all patients returned to their former sports activity 3 to 8 weeks after the event. Mechanical and functional stability after more than one year are excellent with the exception of 3 cases. The results are discussed and compared with other studies.     

Treatment of acute lateral ankle ligament rupture in the athlete. Conservative versus surgical treatment

Acute lateral ankle ligament sprains are common in young athletes (15 to 35 years of age). Diagnostic and treatment protocols vary. Therapies range from cast immobilisation or acute surgical repair to functional rehabilitation. The lateral ligament complex includes 3 capsular ligaments: the anterior tibiofibular (ATFL), calcaneofibular (CFL) and posterior talofibular (PTFL) ligaments. Injuries typically occur during plantar flexion and inversion; the ATFL is most commonly torn. The CFL and the PTFL can also be injured and, after severe inversion, subtalar joint ligaments are also affected. Commonly, an athlete with a lateral ankle ligament sprain reports having 'rolled over' the outside of their ankle. The entire ankle and foot must be examined to ensure there are no other injuries. Clinical stability tests for ligamentous disruption include the anterior drawer test of ATFL function and inversion tilt test of both ATFL and CFL function. Radiographs may rule out treatable fractures in severe injuries or when pain or tenderness are not associated with lateral ligaments. Stress radiographs do not affect treatment. Ankle sprains are classified from grades I to III (mild, moderate or severe). Grade I and II injuries recover quickly with nonoperative management. A non-operative 'functional treatment' programme includes immediate use of RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation), a short period of immobilisation and protection with a tape or bandage, and early range of motion, weight-bearing and neuromuscular training exercises. Proprioceptive training on a tilt board after 3 to 4 weeks helps improve balance and neuromuscular control of the ankle. Treatment for grade III injuries is more controversial. A comprehensive literature evaluation and meta-analysis showed that early functional treatment provided the fastest recovery of ankle mobility and earliest return to work and physical activity without affecting late mechanical stability. Functional treatment was complication-free, whereas surgery had serious, though infrequent, complications. Functional treatment produced no more sequelae than casting with or without surgical repair. Secondary surgical repair, even years after an injury, has results comparable to those of primary repair, so even competitive athletes can receive initial conservative treatment. Sequelae of lateral ligament injuries are common. After conservative or surgical treatment, 10 to 30% of patients have chronic symptoms, including persistent synovitis or tendinitis, ankle stiffness, swelling, pain, muscle weakness and 'giving-way'. Well-designed physical therapy programmes usually reduce instability. For individuals with chronic instability refractory to conservative measures, surgery may be needed. Subtalar instability should be carefully evaluated when considering surgery.     

Injuries of the lateral ankle ligaments: classification with tenography and arthrography

To assess the value of tenography of the peroneal tendon sheaths and of arthrography of the tibiotalar joint for the diagnosis and classification of recent ruptures of the lateral ankle ligaments, the authors performed a prospective study on 108 patients with inversion trauma of the ankle. All patients underwent tenography. Arthrography was performed if results of tenography were negative. All patients with positive tenographic or arthrographic results underwent surgery. Tenography proved to be reliable in the diagnosis of injuries of the calcaneofibular ligament (sensitivity, 88%; specificity, 87%-94%). The positive predictive value of tenography in combination with arthrography was 100% for the diagnosis of lateral ligament ruptures. The authors conclude that a combination of arthrography and tenography is a reliable method for diagnosing recent ruptures of the lateral ankle ligaments and for differentiating between isolated ruptures of the talofibular ligament and combined lesions of both the talofibular and the calcaneofibular ligaments.     

The accuracy of three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of ruptures of the lateral ligaments of the ankle.

In a prospective study, the diagnostic accuracy of three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of ruptures of the lateral ligaments of the ankle was determined by comparing three-dimensional magnetic resonance findings with operative findings. In a series of 18 consecutive cases of acute significant inversion trauma to the ankle, a three-dimensional fast imaging with steady-state precession pulse sequence (3D FISP) was performed. The study included only those cases in which views showed a difference in talar tilt of 15 degrees or more, and a difference in anteroposterior drawer of 10 mm or more between the imaged and the normal ankle. All ankles were scheduled for surgical exploration. Compared with operative findings, the sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 3D FISP imaging were, respectively, 100%, 50%, and 94.4% for ruptures of the anterior talofibular ligament and 91.7%, 100%, and 94.4% for ruptures of the calcaneofibular ligament. We believe that 3D FISP magnetic resonance imaging is a noninvasive, fast, and very accurate diagnostic aid to operative planning for double ligament tears in younger competitive athletes.     

Anatomical reconstruction versus tenodesis for the treatment of chronic anterolateral instability of the ankle joint: a 2- to 10-year follow-up, multicenter study

The clinical outcome of anatomical reconstruction or tenodesis in the treatment of chronic anterolateral ankle instability was assessed in a retrospective multicenter study. The anatomical reconstruction group (group A) consisted of 106 patients (mean age at operation 24 ± 8.4 years) and the tenodesis group (group B) of 110 patients (mean age at operation 26 ± 11.4 years). Patients were evaluated at a mean follow-up of 5.5 ± 2.8 years in group A and 5.2 ± 2.9 years in group B. The review protocol included patient characteristics, physical examination, two ankle scoring scales to evaluate the functional results, and standard anteroposterior and lateral radiographs to evaluate degenerative changes. Mechanical stability was evaluated using standardized stress radiographs. A larger number of reoperations was performed in group B (P = 0.008). At physical examination, more patients in group B had a smaller range of ankle motion than those in group A (P = 0.009). ¶A larger proportion of patients in group B had medially located osteophytes, as seen on standard radiographs (P = 0.04). On stress radiographic examination, the mean talar tilt (P = 0.001) and mean anterior talar translation (P < 0.001) were seen to be significantly greater in group B than in group A. There were no differences in mean Karlsson score between the groups, but more patients in group A had an excellent result on the Good score (P = 0.011). Unlike anatomical reconstructions, tenodeses do not restore the normal anatomy of the lateral ankle ligaments. This results in restricted range of ankle motion, reduced long-term stability, an increased risk of medially located degenerative changes, a larger number of reoperations, and less satisfactory overall results.