Attributes of Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy in the United States

Objectives

To compare the attributes of US colleges and schools of pharmacy and describe the extent of change to the pharmacy education enterprise associated with the addition of new schools.

Methods

Attributes analyzed included whether the college or school of pharmacy was old or new, public or private, secular or faith-based, and on or not on an academic health center (AHC) campus; had 3- or 4- year programs; and had PhD students enrolled. PharmD student enrollment-to-faculty ratios and junior-to-senior faculty ratios also were examined.

Results

Of the new colleges/schools, 76% were private and 79% were not located on a campus with an AHC; 6% had PhD enrollment compared with 80% of old colleges/schools. Faculty ratios were related to several college/school attributes, including the presence or absence of PhD students and whether the college/school was public or private.

Conclusions

Attributes of new colleges and schools of pharmacy have changed the overall profile of all colleges and schools of pharmacy. For example, smaller percentages of all colleges and schools of pharmacy are public and have PhD enrollees.     

Implementing Standards 2007 to Improve Students�� Preparation for Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objective

To examine the impact of implementation of the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education''s (ACPE''s) Standards 2007 on pharmacy students’ preparation for their first advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE).

Design

The doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) curriculum was altered to include introductory pharmacy practice experiences (IPPE), second-year therapeutics, classroom integration of practice experiences, more biomedical sciences, an electronic portfolio system, life-long learning exercises, and additional content based on Appendix B of Standards 2007. Curricular outcomes and the assessment plan also were revised based on Standards 2007.

Assessment

To evaluate the impact of these changes to the curriculum, faculty members rated 9 behaviors of students observed during the third week of their first APPE and compared their scores with those of students who were evaluated in 2004 before the curriculum had been revised. Students completing the revised curriculum performed all 9 behaviors more often and had a better average score than students evaluated in 2004.

Conclusion

Curricular revisions implemented to address ACPE Standards 2007 were associated with positive clinical behaviors in students beginning their experiential education.     

The Status of US Multi-campus Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy

Objective

To assess the current status of multi-campus colleges and schools of pharmacy within the United States.

Methods

Data on multi-campus programs, technology, communication, and opinions regarding benefits and challenges were collected from Web sites, e-mail, and phone interviews from all colleges and schools of pharmacy with students in class on more than 1 campus.

Results

Twenty schools and colleges of pharmacy (18 public and 2 private) had multi-campus programs; 16 ran parallel campuses and 4 ran sequential campuses. Most programs used synchronous delivery of classes. The most frequently reported reasons for establishing the multi-campus program were to have access to a hospital and/or medical campus and clinical resources located away from the main campus and to increase class size. Effectiveness of distance education technology was most often sited as a challenge.

Conclusion

About 20% of colleges and schools of pharmacy have multi-campus programs most often to facilitate access to clinical resources and to increase class size. These programs expand learning opportunities and face challenges related to technology, resources, and communication.     

Pharmacy Students' Ability to Identify Potential Drug-Drug Interactions

Objective

To evaluate the ability of third- and fourth-year pharmacy students to identify clinically significant drug-drug interactions (DDIs)

Methods

A questionnaire designed to measure DDI knowledge was disseminated to fourth-year pharmacy students in a school of pharmacy. A second questionnaire was distributed to third-year pharmacy students in 2 schools of pharmacy (schools A and B) and re-administered to students in 1 of the schools 1 year later.

Results

Class of 2005 fourth-year pharmacy students correctly categorized an average of 52% ± 13% DDI pairs on the first questionnaire. Third-year pharmacy students at schools A and B correctly categorized an average of 61% ± 18% and 66% ± 15% of DDI pairs, respectively. The average percentage of correct responses for fourth-year students from the class of 2007 was 65% (± 17%).

Conclusion

Pharmacy students'' ability to identify important DDIs is far from optimal, even after completing experiential requirements.     

Cultural competence knowledge and confidence after classroom activities

Objectives

To determine change in cultural competency knowledge and perceived confidence of second-year pharmacy students to deliver culturally competent care after completing a required cultural competency curriculum.

Design

Cultural competence material was covered in the second-year PharmD curriculum through lectures, laboratories, and an experiential/out-of-class assignment.

Assessment

Eighty-five second-year (P2) pharmacy students completed a survey which assessed influence of classroom activities related to cultural competence. Mean values for knowledge and perceived confidence were significantly higher for posttest compared to pretest (p < 0.01), after cultural competency activities. Focus groups were used to solicit students'' opinions on instructional effectiveness, relevance of activities, and areas for enhancement.

Conclusion

The cultural competency curriculum increased pharmacy students'' awareness of and confidence in addressing cultural diversity issues that affect pharmaceutical care delivery.     

Mobile Computing Initiatives Within Pharmacy Education

Objectives

To identify mobile computing initiatives within pharmacy education, including how devices are obtained, supported, and utilized within the curriculum.

Methods

An 18-item questionnaire was developed and delivered to academic affairs deans (or closest equivalent) of 98 colleges and schools of pharmacy.

Results

Fifty-four colleges and schools completed the questionnaire for a 55% completion rate. Thirteen of those schools have implemented mobile computing requirements for students. Twenty schools reported they were likely to formally consider implementing a mobile computing initiative within 5 years.

Conclusions

Numerous models of mobile computing initiatives exist in terms of device obtainment, technical support, infrastructure, and utilization within the curriculum. Responders identified flexibility in teaching and learning as the most positive aspect of the initiatives and computer-aided distraction as the most negative, Numerous factors should be taken into consideration when deciding if and how a mobile computing requirement should be implemented.     

The structured interview and interviewer training in the admissions process

Objectives

To determine the extent to which the structured interview is used in the PharmD admissions process in US colleges and schools of pharmacy, and the prevalence and content of interviewer training.

Methods

A survey instrument consisting of 7 questions regarding interviews and interviewer training was sent to 92 colleges and schools of pharmacy in the United States that were accredited or seeking accreditation.

Results

Sixty survey instruments (65% response rate) were returned. The majority of the schools that responded (80%) used interviews as part of the PharmD admissions process. Of the schools that used an interview as part of the admissions process, 86% provided some type of interviewer training and 13% used a set of predefined questions in admissions interviews.

Conclusions

Most colleges and schools of pharmacy use some components of the structured interview in the PharmD admissions process; however, training for interviewers varies widely among colleges and schools of pharmacy.     

Research-related Coursework and Research Experiences in Doctor of Pharmacy Programs

Objectives

To evaluate the research-related coursework and research experiences in doctor of pharmacy programs and compare the findings to those of 2 previous studies.

Methods

A questionnaire was mailed to 88 colleges and schools of pharmacy in the United States and Puerto Rico. The survey instrument sought information on formal research-related coursework; required and elective research experiences; and perceptions of student-conducted research.

Results

Seventy-nine colleges and schools completed the questionnaire for a response rate of 88%. Most colleges (>90%) required students to study/complete courses in biostatistics and drug information/literature evaluation; approximately half required research methods coursework. Twenty-five percent required some form of project and requirements were not influenced by class size. Students could often work in teams to complete projects. Respondents generally thought participation in research had some value for motivated students.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates the variability in extent of research-related coursework and research experiences in PharmD programs across the country.     

Pharmacoeconomic education in US colleges and schools of pharmacy: an update

Objectives

To determine the extent of pharmacoeconomics education at US pharmacy colleges and schools in 2007.

Methods

An e-mail survey was developed and sent to pharmacoeconomics instructors at all US colleges of pharmacy.

Results

Of the 90 colleges and schools of pharmacy that completed the survey, 7 colleges and schools did not currently have someone teaching pharmacoeconomics (eg, new school or looking for instructor). For the 83 colleges and schools that had an instructor who taught pharmacoeconomics, 69 covered pharmacoeconomic-related topics in a required course only; 5, in an elective course only; and 9, in both a required and elective course. The number of hours of pharmacoeconomic-related topics presented in required courses ranged from 1 to 48 hours (mean = 21 ± 14; median = 19).

Conclusions

Pharmacoeconomics education courses are offered at the majority of US colleges and schools of pharmacy. There was a wide range of hours devoted to pharmacoeconomic-related topics and the topics covered in these colleges and schools varied. Although the majority of US colleges and schools of pharmacy offer pharmacoeconomics courses, official guidelines are needed for the specific aspects and topics that should be covered in the classroom.     

Integration of First- and Second-Year Introductory Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objectives

To describe the integration of a first- and second-year introductory pharmacy practice experience (IPPE) involving direct patient contact in hospitals and clinics as a means of more efficiently using academic and preceptor resources.

Design

Two IPPE courses were integrated in fall 2004 to accomodate increasing enrollment in classes and limited clinical practice sites and preceptors, as well as to meet the increased need for students and clinicians to practice principles of self-education. P1 and P2 students interviewed patients and presented patient cases; preceptor expectations were structured by instructional objectives. Student and preceptor course evaluations were assessed from survey data.

Assessment

During the assessment period, all students passed the courses. Following integration of the IPPEs, both courses received positive evaluations from students and preceptors. Initial advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) grades for students completing the courses further suggests that the integrated IPPEs were beneficial to students.

Conclusion

The successful integration of first- and second- year IPPE courses resulted in more efficient use of academic and preceptor resources and created a model for other colleges of pharmacy to consider.     

Capacity of Hospitals to Partner with Academia to Meet Experiential Education Requirements for Pharmacy Students

Purpose

Current hospital and health-system participation in and the future capacity for experiential education for pharmacy students was investigated.

Methods

An online survey of ASHP members identified as U.S. pharmacy directors was conducted to assess their current and future involvement in partnering with colleges and schools to meet the experiential education requirements for doctor of pharmacy students and the current status of the student learning experiences. Questionnaire items examined the factors on which expanded involvement in experiential education would depend, the nature of support provided by colleges and schools, the types of experiences available for students, respondents'' perceptions of factors influencing the quality of experiential education, the value of experiential education to the sites, respondents'' challenges and concerns about experiential education, and respondents'' current capacity and projections for introductory and advanced experiences through 2012.

Results

Data from 549 respondents were analyzed. Most respondents indicated that they had conducted advanced experiences for their 2007 graduates and anticipated that they would continue to do so. Among the top challenges identified regarding advanced experiences were concerns about time to serve and be trained as preceptors and a lack of standardization and coordination among colleges and schools. Hospitals forecasting their future capacity to accommodate students indicated that their projections were highly dependent on the number of pharmacists at their hospitals. Many respondents noted that their capacity projections were tied to their ability to expand clinical services at their hospitals.

Conclusion

A survey of pharmacy directors suggested an ability of U.S. hospitals to conduct advanced experiential education opportunities for pharmacy students through 2012 and to expand introductory experiences.     

Pharmacy Students' Facebook Activity and Opinions Regarding Accountability and E-Professionalism

Objective

To assess pharmacy students'' Facebook activity and opinions regarding accountability and e-professionalism and determine effects of an e-professionalism education session on pharmacy students'' posting behavior.

Methods

A 21-item questionnaire was developed, pilot-tested, revised, and administered to 299 pharmacy students at 3 colleges of pharmacy. Following a presentation regarding potential e-professionalism issues with Facebook, pharmacy students with existing profiles answered an additional question concerning changes in online posting behavior.

Results

Incoming first-year pharmacy students'' Facebook usage is consistent with that of the general college student population. Male students are opposed to authority figures'' use of Facebook for character and professionalism judgments and are more likely to present information they would not want faculty members, future employers, or patients to see. More than half of the pharmacy students planned to make changes to their online posting behavior as a result of the e-professionalism presentation.

Conclusions

There is high social media usage among pharmacy students and many do not fully comprehend the issues that arise from being overly transparent in online settings. Attitudes toward accountability for information supplied via social networking emphasize the need for e-professionalism training of incoming pharmacy students.     

Teaching Evaluation Practices in Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy

Objective

To document teaching evaluation practices in colleges and schools of pharmacy.

Methods

A 51-item questionnaire was developed based on the instrument used in a previous study with modifications made to address changes in pharmacy education. An online survey service was used to distribute the electronic questionnaire to the deans of 98 colleges and schools of pharmacy in the United States.

Results

Completed surveys were received from 89 colleges and schools of pharmacy. All colleges/schools administered student evaluations of classroom and experiential teaching. Faculty peer evaluation of classroom teaching was used by 66% of colleges/schools. Use of other evaluation methods had increased over the previous decade, including use of formalized self-appraisal of teaching, review of teaching portfolios, interviews with samples of students, and review by teaching experts. While the majority (55%) of colleges/schools administered classroom teaching evaluations at or near the conclusion of a course, 38% administered them at the midpoint and/or conclusion of a faculty member''s teaching within a team-taught course. Completion of an online evaluation form was the most common method used for evaluation of classroom (54%) and experiential teaching (72%).

Conclusion

Teaching evaluation methods used in colleges and schools of pharmacy expanded from 1996 to 2007 to include more evaluation of experiential teaching, review by peers, formalized self-appraisal of teaching, review of teaching portfolios, interviews with samples of students, review by teaching experts, and evaluation by alumni. Procedures for conducting student evaluations of teaching have adapted to address changes in curriculum delivery and technology.     

Objective structured clinical examinations in doctor of pharmacy programs in the United States

Objectives

To describe current objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) practices in doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) programs in the United States.

Methods

Structured interviews were conducted with PharmD faculty members between September 2008 and May 2010 to collect information about awareness of and interest in OSCE, current OSCE practices, and barriers to OSCEs.

Results

Of 108 US colleges and schools of pharmacy identified, interviews were completed for a representative sample of 88 programs (81.5% participation rate). Thirty-two pharmacy programs reported using OSCEs; however, practices within these programs varied. Eleven of the programs consistently administered examinations of 3 or more stations, required all students to complete the same scenario(s), and had processes in place to ensure consistency of standardized patients'' role portrayal. Of the 55 programs not using OSCEs, approximately half were interested in using the technique. Common barriers to OSCE implementation or expansion were cost and faculty members'' workloads.

Conclusions

There is wide interest in using OSCEs within pharmacy education. However, few colleges and schools of pharmacy conduct OSCEs in an optimal manner, and most do not adhere to best practices in OSCE construction and administration.     

Faculty Awards at US Colleges and Schools of Pharmacy

Objectives

To determine recognition given for outstanding teaching, service, and scholarship at US colleges and schools of pharmacy, the types of awards given, and the process used to select the recipients.

Methods

A self-administered questionnaire was made available online in 2006 to deans at 89 colleges and schools of pharmacy.

Results

Sixty-four usable responses (72%) were obtained. An award to acknowledge teaching excellence was most commonly reported (92%), followed by an award for adjunct/volunteer faculty/preceptors (79%). The majority of the institutions (31 out of 58) reported offering 1 teaching award annually. The 2 most common methods for selecting the recipient of the teaching award were by student vote and by college/school committee vote following nominations. Twenty-four of the 63 respondents indicated that their institution provided an award for research/scholarship and 18 offered an award for outstanding service.

Conclusions

Teaching excellence was recognized and rewarded at most US colleges and schools of pharmacy; however, research/scholarship and service were formally recognized less frequently.     

Third-year pharmacy students' work experience and attitudes and perceptions of the pharmacy profession

Objectives

To describe PharmD students'' work experiences and activities; examine their attitudes towards their work; examine perceptions of preceptor pharmacists they worked with; and determine important issues associated with career preference.

Methods

A written survey was administered to third-year doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students at 8 colleges and schools of pharmacy in the Midwest.

Results

Five hundred thirty-three students (response rate = 70.4%) completed the survey instrument. Nearly 100% of PharmD students reported working in a pharmacy by the time their advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs) began. Seventy-eight percent reported working in a community pharmacy, and 67% had worked in a chain community pharmacy. For all practice settings, students reported spending 69% of their time on activities such as compounding, dispensing, and distribution of drug products.

Conclusions

Most students are working in community pharmacy (mainly chain) positions where their primary function is traditional drug product dispensing and distribution. Having a controllable work schedule was the variable most strongly associated with career choice for all students.     

Professional technical standards in colleges and schools of pharmacy

Objective

To determine the prevalence, characteristics, and use of professional technical standards among colleges and schools of pharmacy accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE).

Methods

The Web site of every college and school of pharmacy accredited by ACPE was searched to identify information regarding the availability, content, and use of technical standards and to obtain demographic information.

Results

Information was obtained from all of the 114 colleges and schools of pharmacy and 67 (59%) had technical standards in place. Common themes for technical standards were: observation; communication; motor; intellectual, conceptual, integrative and quantitative abilities; and behavioral and social attributes. Of those colleges and schools with technical standards, 61 (91%) had standards that addressed all 5 of these themes and 34 (51%) specified that the technical standards were used in their admission, progression, and graduation procedures.

Conclusion

More than half of the colleges and schools of pharmacy examined in this study have technical standards; however, 41% have yet to develop and implement them. Colleges and schools of pharmacy looking for guidance in technical standards development could use the technical standards themes identified in this study.