Childhood cross-gender behavior of homosexual females in Brazil,Peru, the Philippines,and the United States

Heterosexual and homosexual females were interviewed with regard to childhood cross-gender behavior in Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States. Nine items were used to examine childhood behavior differences between heterosexual and homosexual females. Six of these items (playing with boys' toys, playing with girls' toys, dressing up in men's clothes, dressing up in women's clothes, paying attention to women's fashions, and being considered a tomboy) revealed statistically significant differences between the heterosexual and homosexual females. These differences demonstrated significant cross-cultural consistency, despite cultural variations among the societies examined. Rejection of certain gender-typical activities and interests, as well as involvement in cross-gendered activities and interests, seem to be consistent precursors of adult sexual orientation regardless of the cultural context in which these behaviors emerge.     

“Sex-role preference” as an explanatory variable in homosexual behavior

Sex-role preference is an important neglected variable in statistically controlled studies of homosexual behavior. This variable must accompany controls for degree of psychopathology of respondents and degree of heterosexual and homosexual behavior experienced by respondents. Cross-cultural differences exist. Mexican males have rigidly defined insertor-insertee roles, with earlier life events serving as predictors of these sex-role preferences. Greece is comparable to Mexico. In Turkey, stigmatization accompanies passive homosexuality. Role playing may be age graded, as in the Southwest Pacific. In lower socioeconomic classes of the United States, sex roles for homosexual males are more stereotypically and unequivocably defined. Chicanos generally have strong sex-role preferences when involved in homosexual encounters; their attitude is similar to that found in Mexico. Among middle-class Anglo-American males, few or no sex-role feelings are associated with types of sex acts by most homosexually behaving males. This may be related to a focus on oral-genital rather than anal sex acts. The sharply dichotomized gender roles and the cultural formulation linking effeminacy and homosexuality appear to provide the necessary conditions for the development of sex-role preferences in many societies.Presented to Symposium on Ethnosexuality, Annual Meeting of the Southwestern Anthropological Association, San Francisco, April 1976.     

The prevalence of homosexual behavior and attraction in the United States,the United Kingdom and France: Results of national population-based samples

Researchers determining the prevalence of homosexuality in nationally representative samples have focused upon determining the prevalence of homosexual behavior, ignoring those individuals whose sexual attraction to the same sex had not resulted in sexual behavior. We examine the use of sexual attraction as well as sexual behavior to estimate the prevalence of homosexuality in the United States, the United Kingdom, and France using the Project HOPE International Survey of AIDS-Risk Behaviors. We find that 8.7, 7.9, and 8.5% of males and 11.1, 8.6, and 11.7% of females in the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, respectively, report some homosexual attraction but no homosexual behavior since age 15. Further, considering homosexual behavior and homosexual attraction as different but overlapping dimensions of homosexuality, we find 20.8, 16.3, and 18.5% of males, and 17.8, 18.6, and 18.5% of females in the United States, the United Kingdom, and France report either homosexual behavior or homosexual attraction since age 15. Examination of homosexual behavior separately finds that 6.2, 4.5, and 10.7% of males and 3.6, 2.1, and 3.3% of females in the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, respectively, report having had sexual contact with someone of the same sex in the previous 5 years. Our findings highlight the importance of using more than just homosexual behavior to examine the prevalence of homosexuality.     

Six homosexual siblings

A family consisting of several homosexual siblings is reported. All ten of the siblings in this family were to some degree homosexually experienced. Six were homosexual or predominantly homosexual, and five had a homosexual identity. The sex composition of the family was three females and seven males. Of the three females, one was homosexual, one was bisexual, and one had had some homosexual experience. There was one set of male dizygotic twins concordant for homosexuality in the family. All ten siblings were exposed to relatively similar family dynamics. The father's behavior toward the children and his wife was characterized by hostility, violence, and alcoholism. He was eventually murdered when the youngest child was 6 years old. The mother demonstrated qualities that were essentially opposite those of the father. She was described as affectionate and loving toward all the children, and she did not display violent behavior. The male homosexual sibling who was interviewed displayed a strong identification with his mother via a feminine self-identification, the adoption of the housewife role in a homosexual marriage, and the adoption of the passive role in anal intercourse. Only one other multiple homosexual sibling family has been reported in the scientific literature. This family consisted of 14 siblings, 11 male and three female. The four homosexual siblings in this family were all male and consisted of two sets of dizygotic twins. The behavior of the parents of this family was quite similar to the behavior of the parents in this study—a hostile and violent father and an affectionate and loving mother. These two multiple homosexual sibling families provide support for theories that emphasize the importance of early family relationships in the development of a homosexual adaptation. It is held that multiple homosexual sibling families can be employed as strategic data in testing various etiological theories of homosexuality.     

Psychosocial development of heterosexual,bisexual, and homosexual behavior

Relationships with overt adult Kinsey Scale scores (K) indicate that early sexual experiences are most closely related to K, followed in order by gender related and familial variables. A developmental model emphasizing social learning is presented. Interviewees were 7669 American white males and females.Elevated K (more homosexual scores) was found for females who had few girl companions at age 10 and few male companions at 16, had learned to masturbate by being masturbated by a female, had intense prepubertal sexual contact with boys or men, found thought or sight of females, but not males, arousing by age 18, had homosexual contact by age 18, higher K at 17, and higher first-year homosexual behavior frequency.Elevated K (more homosexual scores) was found for males who reported poorer teenage relationships with their fathers, had more girl companions at age 10, fewer male companions at 10 and 16, avoided sports participation, learned of homosexuality by experience, learned to masturbate by being masturbated by a male, had intense prepubertal sexual contact with boys or men, had neither heterosexual contact nor petting to orgasm by age 18, found thought or sight of males, but not females, arousing by age 18, had homosexual contact by age 18, higher K at ages 16 and 17, and had higher first-year homosexual behavior frequency.Behavioral bisexuals, those scoring between 2.0 and 4.0 on the K scale on the basis of overt behavior (0.7% of females, 1.2% of males), reported more arousal to heterosexual stimuli than did exclusive heterosexuals.     

Fertility in the Mothers of Firstborn Homosexual and Heterosexual Men

This study tested the balancing selection hypothesis, that is, genes predisposing men to homosexuality escape elimination from the population because the decreased fertility of men with the heritable form of homosexuality is offset by an increased fertility among biological relatives who carry the same genetic variants. The index subjects (probands) were 40,197 firstborn heterosexual men and 4,784 firstborn homosexual men retrieved from six archival data sets, all of which had previously been used in published research. The measure of familial (specifically, parental) fertility was the proband’s number of younger siblings. The results directly contradicted the prediction of the balancing selection hypothesis. In four of the six samples, the homosexual probands had significantly fewer younger siblings; in the other two samples, the means were not significantly different. It is possible that mothers who produce a homosexual son at their first delivery include a biologically distinct subpopulation of mothers of homosexual sons.     

An Empirical Test of the Kin Selection Hypothesis for Male Homosexuality

The current investigation, following Bobrow and Bailey (2001), aimed to test the kin selection theory of homosexuality in human males using a survey design. A total of 60 heterosexual and 60 homosexual men from England completed items measuring psychological and behavioral indices of “special design” as predicted by adaptation due to kin selection. There were no significant differences between heterosexual and homosexual men in general familial affinity, generous feelings (willingness to provide financial and emotional resources), and benevolent tendencies (such as willingness to baby-sit). These remained non-significant after co-varying for level of personal income (higher among homosexual men), psychological gender, and interest in children. Overall, little support was found for the kin selection theory in a community sample.     

The Cognitive, Behavioral, and Personality Profiles of a Male Monozygotic Triplet Set Discordant for Sexual Orientation

The neurohormonal theory of sexual orientation proposes that homosexual men and homosexual women are exposed prenatally to a hormonal environment that is similar to that of the other sex. Prenatal exposure to an opposite-sex hormonal environment may lead the nervous system to develop in a manner consistent with the opposite sex. If this cross-sex exposure occurs, one prediction would be that the cognitive ability profile of homosexual men would be similar to that of heterosexual women. This study examined a set of male monozygotic triplets, aged 21 years, discordant for sexual orientation: 2 of the triplets were heterosexual, 1 was homosexual. The triplets were administered measures of 23 domains of cognitive ability, as well as measures of sexual orientation and masculinity/femininity. On the measures of cognitive ability, the triplets performed similarly, yet consistent differences were found between the 2 heterosexual triplets and the 1 homosexual cotriplet. Differences having the same pattern were found for the number of Schafer homosexuality signs on the Rorschach, and on a homosexuality scale derived from items on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory--2 (MMPI-2). Responses from the homosexual triplet were in a more feminine direction than responses from his 2 heterosexual cotriplets on measures of masculinity-femininity, which included measures derived from Rorschach responses, the MMPI-2 Masculinity-Femininity scale, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, and the Boyhood Gender Conformity Scale. Responses to the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire also distinguished the 1 homosexual triplet from the 2 heterosexual cotriplets. These findings support the view that the prenatal hormonal environment may have enduring effects on selected behavioral traits.     

Etiology and treatment of homosexuality: A review

The major causal theories of and treatment approaches to male and female homosexuality are critically reviewed. Neither biological, psychoanalytic, nor learning and social-learning theories are found to provide convincing evidence for the etiology of homosexuality. All of these accounts, however, are viewed as providing mixed empirical support for their predictions, with social-learning research presenting the most consistent evidence. It is argued that both sociallearning research findings and results from retrospective studies suggest that homosexuality may best be linked to the early qualitative learning and development of one's gender identity and gender role. Both psychoanalytic therapy and behavior therapy are found to have minimal successes and many failures. Most therapeutic successes seem to be with bisexuals rather than with exclusive homosexuals. The combined use of psychotherapy and specific behavioral techniques is seen to offer some promise for heterosexual adaptation with certain kinds of patients. However, it is argued that better prospects for intervention in homosexuality lie in its prevention through the early identification and treatment of the potential homosexual child.     

Two types of cross-gender identity

A revision of the typology of male cross-gender identity was carried out by means of formalized, easily replicable methods. The results suggest (1) that there are two discrete types of cross-gender identity, one heterosexual, the other homosexual; (2) that transvestism, and closely related conditions of cross-gender identity, occur exclusively or almost exclusively in heterosexuals; (3) that of the two types of transsexualism distinguished in this study, type A is, in heterosexuals, very rare or completely nonexistent; (4) that (in the course of time) transvestites or borderline transsexuals (defined below) may develop sustained cross-gender identity, as observed by Stoller (1971); (5) that although, according to Hoenig and Kenna (1974), transsexualism by itself is not an anomalous erotic preference, it is (virtually) always either preceded by transvestism or accompanied by homosexuality or cross-gender fetishism.This study was supported by Grant#764 of the Ontario Mental Health Foundation, Canada.     

Attitudes toward gay men and lesbians and related factors among nurses in Southern Taiwan

OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were to explore different dimensions of the attitudes toward gay men and lesbians among nurses in southern Taiwan and to examine the association between attitudes and intention to provide care to homosexual individuals. The factors related to attitudes towards gay men and lesbians by nurses were also examined. METHODS: In total, 1824 nurses from a medical centre and two regional teaching hospitals in southern Taiwan were recruited into this study. We used the Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Questionnaire (ATHQ) to examine four-dimensional concepts toward homosexuality among nurses. The association of attitudes with the intention of taking care of homosexual patients was examined. Correlations of attitudes toward homosexuality with demographic and occupational data, sexual orientation, knowledge about homosexuality, and experiences of having contact with gay men and lesbians were examined using a stepwise multiple linear regression. RESULTS: Participants had the most negative attitude toward homosexuality in the 'contact' and 'stereotypes' dimensions, followed by the 'morality' dimension and then the 'condemnation/tolerance' dimension. Nurses with more negative attitudes toward homosexuality had lower intentions of taking care of patients with a homosexual orientation. Nurses who had friends or relatives with a homosexual orientation, had a higher educational degree, and had provided care to homosexual patients were more likely to have positive attitudes toward homosexuality. In contrast, nurses who had worked for a longer period, labelled themselves as being absolutely heterosexual, and were religious were more likely to have negative attitudes toward homosexuality. CONCLUSIONS: The factors related to attitudes toward homosexuality identified in this study have to be taken into consideration when intervening for nurses' attitudes toward gay men and lesbians.     

True Nature: A Theory of Human Sexual Evolution. Part 1

There exists an unfounded and unproven common sense belief that human beings possess the innate mechanistic urge to reproduce clearly evident in the behavior of all other sexually reproducing animals. As such, the heterosexual component of human behavior is by and large viewed as being genetic, whereas it is homosexuality that is primarily the focus of scientific investigations into human sexual orientation. A historical review of homosexuality in diverse cultures reveals that significantly many cultures have existed where (male) bisexuality has been rather universal and that all cultures have condemned exclusive homosexuality, either legally or with the threat of social rejection. Neither of these facts can be rationalized using the ballpark 10% statistic for homosexuality believed to be representative of human beings. This paper will attempt to provide a general underlying explanation for human sexuality as a whole. It will be argued that the varied forms of human sexual expression may be explained to some extent with the view that by virtue of their supreme intelligence, human beings do not possess an instinct to engage in heterosexual intercourse, human sexual orientation is fully determined by environment alone, and that due to rather universal childhood behavioral tendencies, human beings have a bias for acquiring a homosexual orientation over a heterosexual one or a bisexual one. Controlling this dominant homosexual tendency has always been a basic requirement for the propagation of societies.     

粤、港、澳三地大学生对同性恋的认知调查

目的 了解粤、港、澳三地大学生对同性恋的认识和态度，为开展艾滋病预防工作和同性恋研究提供依据。方法 对广州暨南大学、香港岭南大学和中文大学、澳门大学的大学生进行匿名问卷调查。结果 认为同性恋属于性变态的，广州占27．0％，香港占19．0％，澳门占25．5％；对待同性恋行为持尊重平等态度的，广州占30．6％，香港占43．2％。澳门占34．3％；承认自己是同性恋者的，广州占0．8％，香港占2．8％，澳门占4．8％。结论 粤、港、澳大学生对于同性恋的认识和态度不尽相同；三地大学生均认为社会对于同性恋应给予一定的理解与宽容，但大多数学生并不认同同性恋的性爱方式，同时也认识到同性恋行为感染艾滋病的高风险性。     

Maternal Inheritance and Familial Fecundity Factors in Male Homosexuality

This study, following Camperio-Ciani, Corna, and Capiluppi [(2004), Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences, 271, 2217–2221] aimed to examine the familial history of male homosexuality, and test the so-called “fertile female” hypothesis for this trait in a contemporary British sample. Using a comparative survey design, we found that white (comprising those of Anglo-European descent) and non-white (comprising ethnic “Blacks, “South Asians,” “East Asians,” “Hispanics,” and “Others”) homosexual men (n = 147) had a significant excess of maternal but not paternal line male homosexual relatives compared to heterosexual men (n = 155). We also found significantly elevated fecundity of maternal aunts of white homosexual men compared to white heterosexual men, whereas non-white heterosexual men showed elevated fecundities of almost every class of relative compared to non-white homosexual men. No significant excess of older brothers was found in homosexual compared to heterosexual men, irrespective of ethnic grouping. These data were discussed in relation to possible population-related factors in evolutionary explanations for human male homosexuality. An erratum to this article can be found at     

A Comparative Analysis of Homosexual Behaviors,Sex Role Preferences,and Anal Sex Proclivities in Latino and Non-Latino Men

Machismo prescribes that homosexual encounters among Latino men are conducted along highly gendered lines: men tend to be anally insertive or receptive over the lifecourse, but not both. Some have argued that Latino men have more lifecourse homosexual behaviors in comparison to other racial/ethnic groups. This is often due to the perception that Latin America has quasi-institutionalized homosexuality, which sharply contrasts it with the United States. Although scholars suggest that sex role preferences and greater likelihoods for homosexual behaviors exist among Latino men in the United States, limited empirical data validate these claims. Latino/non-Latino differences in male homosexual behaviors and sex role preferences were analyzed by using the 2002 cycle of the National Survey of Family Growth, a nationally representative, probability sample of 4,928 men. Findings revealed that non-Mexican Latino, but not Mexican, men had increased likelihoods of ever having anal sex than non-Latino Whites and oral sex than non-Latino Blacks. These relationships remained after controlling for age, education, and foreign birth. Latino men preferred insertive or receptive sex in comparison to non-Latino Blacks and Whites, but this difference disappeared after education was controlled. In full and reduced models, Mexican men tended to be orifice-specific (oral or anal), while non-Mexican Latinos were more oriented to both oral and anal sex. Controlling for other factors, all Latinos were more likely than non-Latino Blacks and Whites to refuse to answer male homosexual behavior questions. The implications of race/ethnicity are discussed for homosexual behavior patterns among U.S. men.     

Male cross-gender behavior in Myanmar (Burma): A description of the acault

Cross-gender behavior in Myanmar (formerly Burma) is reported. Western concepts of transsexualism, gynemimesis, transvestism, and homosexuality are not distinct categories by the Burmese. Males with cross-gender behavior are referred to as acaults. Although Myanmar is a profoundly Buddhist society, the people still have strong animistic beliefs with an elaborate system of 37 nats (spirit gods). One of these nats is a female named Manguedon who may take possession of males and impart femininity on them. The cross-gender status of the acaults is sanctioned by their spiritual marriage to Manguedon. The acaults, while not envied, are respected for their roles as shamans and seers.     

Homosexual Orientation—From Nature, Not Abuse: A Critique of Roberts, Glymour, and Koenen (2013)

Roberts, Glymour, and Koenen (2013), using instrumental variable models, argued that child abuse causes homosexual orientation, defined in part as any same-sex attractions. Their instruments were various negative family environment factors. In their analyses, they found that child sexual abuse (CSA) was more strongly related to homosexual orientation than non-sexual maltreatment was, especially among males. The present commentary therefore focused on male CSA. It is argued that Roberts et al.’s “abuse model” is incorrect and an alternative is presented. Male homosexual behavior is common in primates and has been common in many human societies, such that an evolved human male homosexual potential, with individual variation, can be assumed. Cultural variation has been strongly influenced by cultural norms. In our society, homosexual expression is rare because it is counternormative. The “counternormativity model” offered here holds that negative family environment weakens normative controls and increases counternormative thinking and behavior, which, in combination with sufficient homosexual potential and relevant, reinforcing experiences, can produce a homosexual orientation. This is a benign or positive model (innate potential plus release and reinforcement), in contrast to Roberts et al.’s negative model (abuse plus emotional compensation or cognitive distortion). The abuse model is criticized for being based on the sexual victimological paradigm, which developed to describe the female experience in rape and incest. This poorly fits the gay male experience, as demonstrated in a brief non-clinical literature review. Validly understanding male homosexuality, it is argued, requires the broad perspective, as employed here.     

A follow-up study of 10 feminine boys

Ten subjects who exhibited feminine behavior and cross-dressing as young boys are described. At follow-up, 8 to 10 years later, 4 are heterosexual, 2 are homosexual, 1 is transsexual, and the outcome is uncertain in 3. Of the eight who met DSM III criteria when evaluated, three are heterosexual, two are homosexual, one is transsexual, and the outcome is uncertain for two. Gender dysphoria appears to be a necessary but not sufficient factor in a transsexual outcome. The strength, rigidity, and persistence of cross-gender behavior through latency may be a good predictor of transsexual outcome.     

Sex role endorsement among homosexual men across the life span

This study assessed the sex role endorsement of homosexual men at different ages across the life span. A sample of homosexual men from dignity chapters in the northeastern, midwestern, southern, southwestern, and western United States was mailed a demographic questionnaire and the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Respondents were classified into four age brackets and categorized as androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated. A pattern of diverse sex role endorsement was found from adolescence to maturity in which gay men were equally androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated at each age level. This finding contradicted an earlier study of heterosexual men that reported increasing numbers of androgynous males with age. The contrast suggests that the sex role endorsement of gay men may be very different from their heterosexual counterparts. It was further suggested that gay men are capable of meshing masculine and feminine aspects of their personalities early as well as later in life, that gay men do not comprise a homogeneous group, and that the stereotype of cross-gender role endorsement is unfounded.This work was supported in part by funds from the foundation of the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and from the state of North Carolina.     

Suicidality and Sexual Orientation: Differences Between Men and Women in a General Population-Based Sample From The Netherlands

Homosexuality has been shown to be associated with suicidality and mental disorders. It is unclear whether homosexuality is related to suicidality, independently of mental disorders. This study assessed differences in lifetime symptoms of suicidality (death ideation, death wishes, suicide contemplation, and deliberate self-harm) between homosexual and heterosexual men and women, controlling for lifetime psychiatric morbidity. Interaction effects of age and the role of perceived discrimination were also examined. Data were collected on a representative sample of the Dutch population aged 18–64 years. Classification as heterosexual or homosexual was based upon reported sexual behavior in the preceding year. Of those sexually active, 2.8% of 2,878 men and 1.4% of 3,120 women had had same-sex partners. Homosexual men differed from their heterosexual counterparts on all four suicide symptoms (OR ranging from 2.58 to 10.23, with higher ORs for more severe symptoms), and on the sum total of the four symptoms; homosexual women only differed from heterosexual women on suicide contemplation (OR=2.12). Controlling for psychiatric morbidity decreased the ORs, but among men all associations were still significant; the significance for suicide contemplation among women disappeared. Younger homosexuals were not at lower risk for suicidality than older homosexuals in comparison with their heterosexual counterparts. Among homosexual men, perceived discrimination was associated with suicidality. This study suggests that even in a country with a comparatively tolerant climate regarding homosexuality, homosexual men were at much higher risk for suicidality than heterosexual men. This relationship could not only be attributed to their higher psychiatric morbidity. In women, there was no such clear relationship.