The Radiological Spectrum of Orbital Pathologies that Involve the Lacrimal Gland and the Lacrimal Fossa

CT and MRI are utilized to differentiate between different types of masses and to determine the extent of lesions involving the lacrimal gland and the fossa. Although many diseases that affect the lacrimal gland and fossa are specifically diagnosed by imaging, it is frequently very difficult to differentiate each specific disease on the basis of image characteristics alone due to intrinsic similarities. In lacrimal gland epithelial tumors, benign pleomorphic adenomas are seen most commonly with a well defined benign appearance, and a malignant adenoid cystic carcinoma is seen with a typical invasive malignant appearance. However, a malignant myoepithelial carcinoma is seen with a benign looking appearance. Lymphomatous lesions of the lacrimal gland include a broad spectrum ranging from reactive hyperplasia to malignant lymphoma. These lesions can be very difficult to differentiate both radiologically and pathologically. Generally, lymphomas tend to occur in older patients. The developmental cystic lesions found in the lacrimal fossa such as dermoid and epidermoid cysts can be diagnosed when the cyst involves the superior temporal quadrant of the orbit and manifests as a non-enhancing cystic mass and, in case of a lipoma, it is diagnosed as a total fatty mass. However, masses of granulocytic sarcoma and xanthogranuloma, as well as vascular masses, such as a hemangiopericytoma, are difficult to diagnose correctly on the basis of preoperative imaging findings alone. A careful clinical evaluation and moreover, a pathologic verification, are needed. In this pictorial review, the various imaging spectrums of pathologic masses involving the lacrimal gland and fossa are presented, along with appropriate anatomy and pathology reviews.     

正常人泪腺MRI研究

目的观察正常泪腺的MRI表现,探讨泪腺大小、位置与年龄、性别之间的相关性。资料与方法75例正常人,行MRI横断位、冠状位扫描。观察泪腺在横断面、冠状面的形态及各序列信号表现,并在横断面、冠状面T1WI脂肪抑制序列泪腺最大显示层面测量泪腺面积,计算横断面眶缘前泪腺面积比率(Sr)。结果在T2WI上64例泪腺与脑白质信号相近,11例泪腺信号略高;在T1WI上泪腺与脑白质信号相近;在T1WI脂肪抑制序列,泪腺呈高信号;男性泪腺面积左、右两侧间无明显差异,女性泪腺面积左、右两侧间有显著差异,右侧略大,泪腺面积无明显性别间差异;男性Sr值左、右两侧间无明显差异,女性Sr值左、右两侧间有显著差异,左侧大于右侧;男、女性的Sr值均随年龄增加而增大,Sr值无明显性别间差异。结论MRI横断面及冠状面均可以清楚显示泪腺,非增强T1WI脂肪抑制序列可较好地显示泪腺的形态、结构、位置及与邻近结构的关系;双侧泪腺的大小、形态并不完全对称;随着年龄的增长,泪腺可有向前、下、外方的移位;泪腺大小、位置无明显性别间差异。     

The Male Urethra: Imaging and Surgical Approach for Common Pathologies

Urethral pathology is common in clinical practice and important to recognize. It is essential to recognize urethral pathology on imaging and to understand how to best image the urethra. In this way, the radiologist can provide the urologist with the necessary information prior to intervention. Basic knowledge of commonly performed urethral surgeries can help the radiologist understand the expected appearance of the post-treatment urethra and common postoperative complications.     

Clinical and Radiological Features of Diffuse Lacrimal Gland Enlargement: Comparisons among Various Etiologies in 91 Biopsy-Confirmed Patients

ObjectiveTo compare the clinical and radiological features of various etiologies of chronic diffuse lacrimal gland enlargement.Materials and MethodsWe retrospectively reviewed 91 consecutive patients who underwent surgical biopsy for chronic diffuse lacrimal gland enlargement and were diagnosed with non-specific dacryoadenitis (DA) (n = 42), immunoglobulin G4-related dacryoadenitis (IgG4-RD) (n = 33), and lymphoma (n = 16). Data on patient demographics, clinical presentation, and CT imaging findings (n = 73) and MRI (n = 43) were collected. The following radiologic features of lacrimal gland enlargement were evaluated: size, unilaterality, wedge sign, angle with the orbital wall, heterogeneity, signal intensity, degree of enhancement, patterns of dynamic contrast-enhanced, and apparent diffusion coefficient value. Radiological features outside the lacrimal glands, such as extra-lacrimal orbital involvement and extra-orbital head and neck involvement, were also evaluated. The clinical and radiological findings were compared among the three diseases.ResultsCompared to the DA and IgG4-RD groups, the lymphoma group was significantly older (mean 59.9 vs. 46.0 and 49.4 years, respectively; p = 0.001) and had a higher frequency of unilateral involvement (62.5% vs. 31.0% and 15.2%, respectively; p = 0.004). Compared to the IgG4-RD and lymphoma groups, the DA group had significantly smaller lacrimal glands (2.3 vs. 2.8 and 3.3 cm, respectively; p < 0.001) and a lower proportion of cases with a wedge sign (54.8% vs. 84.8% and 87.5%, respectively; p = 0.005). The IgG4-RD group showed more frequent involvement of the extra-orbital head and neck structures, including the infraorbital nerve (36.4%), paranasal sinus (72.7%), and salivary gland (58.6%) compared to the DA and lymphoma groups (4.8%–28.6%) (all p < 0.005).ConclusionPatient age, unilaterality, lacrimal gland size, wedge sign, and extra-orbital head and neck involvement differed significantly different between lymphoma, DA, and IgG4-RD. Our results will be useful for the differential diagnosis and proper management of chronic lacrimal gland enlargement.     

泪腺外伤的CT表现

目的 探讨泪腺外伤的CT表现. 资料与方法 回顾性分析65例眼外伤合并有泪腺损伤患者的CT资料,其中单侧泪腺损伤63例,双侧2例. 结果 65例67眼泪腺损伤CT表现为泪腺体积增大,边缘模糊, 6例泪腺内可见碎骨片, 5例泪腺与肿胀眼睑分界不清, 4例泪腺向前外下方移位, 2例泪腺密度增高;其他眼外伤表现包括眼睑肿胀、眼球损伤、眶壁骨折、眼外肌增粗、眼眶上壁骨膜下血肿等. 结论 眶壁骨折、眼球损伤、眼睑损伤等眼外伤常合并泪腺损伤,CT检查能及时发现泪腺损伤,有助于临床治疗及预后.     

Staging and Follow-up of Lacrimal Gland Carcinomas by 18F-FDG PET/CT Imaging

ABSTRACT: A 74-year-old man with right eye proptosis, diplopia, and orbital discomfort for 3 to 4 months underwent biopsy, the specimen of which showed transitional cell carcinoma of the lacrimal gland. F-FDG PET/CT was also performed for staging purposes. Six months after orbital exenteration, a follow-up CT scan demonstrated soft tissue thickening along the nasal bridge but could not differentiate between postsurgical changes and cancer recurrence. A concurrent PET/CT scan did not show any evidence of abnormal metabolic activity, further emphasizing the higher accuracy of PET/CT in staging and restaging of head and neck cancers. An annual follow-up scan was still negative for active disease.     

泪腺脱垂的CT及MRI表现

目的：总结分析泪腺脱垂的CT及MRI表现,提高对泪腺脱垂的影像学认识。方法：回顾性分析10例泪腺脱垂患者的CT、MRI表现,其中6例行CT检查,4例行MRI检查。结果：10例中9例为双侧泪腺脱垂,横断面表现为泪腺上部部分越过眶缘,其中5例可见泪腺向眶缘的前外侧呈结节样突出;冠状面表现为泪腺大部分位于眶缘前方、眼球颞侧,呈类圆形团块影。1例为单侧泪腺部分脱垂,MRI横断面表现为泪腺眶缘前部略增大,冠状面于眶缘前方、眼睑颞侧皮下见椭圆形泪腺影,与泪腺眶部走行一致。结论：CT和MRI可以显示泪腺的位置,横断面、冠状面结合观察有助于诊断泪腺脱垂．     

泪腺恶性上皮性肿瘤的CT、MRI诊断

目的 总结泪腺恶性上皮性肿瘤的CT和MRI表现.方法 回顾性分析16例经病理学证实的泪腺恶性上皮性肿瘤CT和MRI影像资料.结果 16例泪腺恶性上皮性肿瘤,15例位于泪腺窝,1例位于眶缘前.5例呈类圆形,11例呈不规则形(其中9例后缘变尖,5例沿眶壁前后方向或上下方向生长),8例泪腺窝骨质受压,6例眶壁骨质破坏,1例眶壁骨质硬化;3例侵犯颅内;1例见额部皮下转移灶;2例CT可见钙化.MRI示肿瘤呈等、长T_1长T2信号,增强扫描可见强化.结论 CT及MRI可显示泪腺恶性上皮性肿瘤的特征,有助于泪腺恶性上皮性肿瘤的诊断及鉴别诊断.     

Trans-diaphragmatic Pathologies: Anatomical Background and Spread of Disease on Cross-sectional Imaging

The diaphragm is not only a sheet of muscle separating the abdominal and thoracic cavities: it plays an essential role in ventilation and can act as a gateway for the spread of different disease processes between the abdominal and the thoracic cavity. Careful attention to the appearance of the diaphragm on various imaging modalities is essential to ensure the accurate diagnosis of diaphragmatic disorders, which may be secondary to functional or anatomical derangements.     

泪腺多形性腺瘤的影像诊断

目的：研究泪腺多形性腺瘤的CT、MRI表现及其诊断价值。材料和方法：收集37例经病理证实的良、恶性（包括恶性变）泪腺多形性腺瘤，均行CT扫描，其中14例增强扫描，4例又行MRI检查，对这些CT和MRI图像进行回顾性分析研究。结果：（1）部位：肿瘤绝大多数（32例）发生于眶部泪腺（良/恶：20/12）；睑叶泪腺3例（良/恶：2/1）；其他部位2例（良/恶：1/1）。（2）形态、密度或信号：边界清晰、类圆形19例（均良性）；不规则或分叶结节状、弥漫性18例（良/恶：5/13）。密度或信号均匀21例（良/恶：17/4），不均质16例（良/恶：6/10）。增强扫描：14例CT和3例MRI均有明显强化（良/恶：7/10）。（3）与邻近结构关系：视神经或眼外肌、眼球受压移位者19例（良/恶：14/5）；界限不清5例（均恶性），其中侵犯、包绕眼球各1例。（4）眶骨及眶外侵犯：眶骨受压变形、吸收11例（良/恶：2/9）；不规则破坏或硬化7例（均恶性），其中2例肿块向骨壁内生长，3例侵犯鼻窦、颅前窝或颞下窝。结论：CT基本上可诊断及鉴别良、恶性泪腺多形性腺瘤及显示眶外侵犯情况；MRI可帮助确诊肿瘤是否有脑内侵犯。     

泪腺良性混合瘤的CT和MRI诊断

目的 探讨CT和MRI对泪腺良性混合瘤的诊断价值. 资料与方法 回顾性分析45例经病理证实的泪腺良性混合瘤的临床和影像学资料,30例行CT检查,35例行MRI检查. 结果 45例中,起源于泪腺眶部43例,泪腺睑部2例.肿瘤呈椭圆形29例,圆形10例,不规则形6例;边缘光滑30例,边缘不规则呈分叶状或结节状15例.CT表现为等密度,大多数密度均匀.眶壁骨质受压、凹陷或缺损22例,骨质破坏伴眶壁硬化、肥厚6例,骨质增生硬化14例.MR T1WI上呈低信号25例,等信号10例,T2WI上呈高信号21例,等信号14例,增强后肿瘤呈中度至明显强化,大多数强化均匀. 结论 泪腺良性混合瘤的CT和MRI表现有一定特征,CT和MRI结合可以提高病变诊断的准确性.     

泪腺腺样囊性癌的CT和MRI诊断

目的研究泪腺腺样囊性癌的CT和MRI表现。资料与方法回顾性分析32例经组织学证实的泪腺腺样囊性癌患者的影像学资料。结果32例均为单侧发病,其中位于左侧19例,右侧13例。CT表现：病变呈长圆形11例,不规则形8例,扁平形7例,卵圆形4例,分叶状2例;24例边界清楚,10例轮廓呈锯齿状;11例密度不均匀,内见低密度区和／或钙化,增强后中到高度强化;24例包绕并压迫眼球,16例沿眶外壁向眶尖区生长,与外直肌分界不清,其中4例浸润视神经;邻近眶壁骨质虫蚀样破坏24例,明显溶骨性破坏3例。MRI表现：与正常眼外肌比较,T1WI呈低信号14例,等信号12例,T2WI呈高信号22例,等信号4例,其中22例信号不均匀,中到高度强化。病变可蔓延到颅内、颞窝、颞下窝、翼腭窝等邻近结构,也可沿神经周扩散。结论泪腺腺样囊性癌有特异影像学征象,可提示诊断;CT是诊断本病的主要影像检查方法,MRI能更清楚地显示病变的范围,CT联合MRI可对诊断、治疗提供重要信息。