Scapholunate gap with scaphoid nonunion

Ten of 64 patients reviewed with scaphoid nonunion were found to have scapholunate gaps (SLG). A roentgenographic study of the entire group who were symptomatic, but had no prior surgery, showed the SLG. The SLG indicated severe ligamentous injury and instability, and was always associated with the presence of Doral Intercalated Segment Instability (DISI) and an increased scapholunate angle. Instability was progressive and associated with the early onset of arthritis. In the entire group of nonunions, high frequency of arthritis occurred with a predictable sequence of radioscaphoid and midcarpal degenerative changes. Terminal wrist arthritis in scaphoid nonunion developed in the scapholunate articulation, as a manifestation of rotary subluxation of the distal scaphoid fragment.     

Resection of the distal pole of the scaphoid for scaphoid nonunion with radioscaphoid and intercarpal arthritis

PURPOSE: The treatment of scaphoid nonunion with degenerative arthritis poses a clinical problem that is particularly challenging in cases of associated dorsal intercalated segmental instability collapse, radiocarpal and intercarpal degenerative changes, and poor scaphoid bone quality. The purpose of this study was to report our clinical experience performing a distal scaphoid resection for symptomatic scaphoid nonunion in patients with either radioscaphoid or intercarpal arthritis who have had multiple surgeries. METHODS: Nine patients with recalcitrant scaphoid nonunion and associated degenerative arthritis treated by resection of the distal scaphoid fragment were evaluated both clinically and radiographically. Eight patients were male and one patient was female; the average follow-up period was 28.6 months (range, 12-52 mo). RESULTS: Seven patients reported pain with daily use and the remaining 2 patients reported mild pain with light work before surgery, whereas after surgery 4 of the 9 patients had no wrist pain and the remaining 5 patients had only mild pain with strenuous activity. The wrist range of motion improved from 70 degrees (51.4% of the opposite wrist) to 140 degrees (94% of the opposite wrist) and grip strength improved from 18 kg (40% of the opposite wrist) to 30 kg (77% of the opposite wrist). Clinical results were excellent in 6 patients and good in 3 patients based on a modified Mayo wrist-scoring chart. Radiographically neither additional degeneration nor progress of degenerative changes was noted after surgery in 8 patients. Newly developed degenerative arthritis occurred at the proximal scapholunate capitate articulation in the remaining patient who has a type II lunate, which had a facet (medial facet) articulation with the hamate. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study showed that distal scaphoid resection produces a satisfactory clinical outcome, requires only a short period of immobilization, and should be considered one of the surgical options for long-standing scaphoid nonunion with either radioscaphoid or intercarpal degenerative arthritis. Nevertheless care must be taken in performing this procedure on patients whose preoperative radiograph show a type II lunate.     

Distal scaphoid resection arthroplasty for the treatment of degenerative arthritis secondary to scaphoid nonunion

Nineteen patients with chronic scaphoid nonunion and associated degenerative arthritis between the distal fragment and the radial styloid were treated by resection of the distal fragment. All patients had a dorsal intercalated segment instability wrist collapse pattern with an average radiolunate angle of -32 degrees and a 10% reduction in the carpal height, both of which changed minimally during the follow-up period. The duration of the nonunion averaged 12 years and the follow-up period averaged 49 months. Range of motion improved 85% and grip improved 134%. Thirteen of the patients experienced complete pain relief. One patient required additional surgery and elected wrist arthrodesis. Resection of the distal fragment is not recommended for patients with capitolunate arthritis. Two of the 4 patients with capitolunate arthritis had persistent symptoms; 3 had progressive degenerative changes.     

The relationship between the site of nonunion of the scaphoid and scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse (SNAC).

We studied retrospectively the radiographs of 33 patients with late symptoms after scaphoid nonunion in an attempt to relate the incidence of scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse (SNAC) to the level of the original fracture. We found differing patterns for nonunion at the proximal, middle and distal thirds. The mean intervals between fracture and complaint were 20.9, 6.7 and 12.6 years and obvious degenerative changes occurred in 85.7%, 40.0% and 33.3%, for the six proximal-, eight middle- and two distal-third nonunions, respectively. Nonunion at the proximal and middle thirds showed the first degenerative changes at the radioscaphoid joint, and this was followed by narrowing of the scaphocapitate and then the lunocapitate joints. In our two nonunions of the distal third degenerative changes were seen only at the lunocapitate joint. Most patients with SNAC and nonunion of the middle or distal third showed dorsal intercalated instability; few patients with nonunion of the proximal third developed this deformity. We discuss the initial management of nonunion of the scaphoid at different levels in the light of our findings, and make recommendations.     

Scaphoid nonunions: a 3-dimensional analysis of patterns of deformity

We tested the hypothesis that the fracture location of scaphoid nonunions relates to the fracture displacement, development of dorsal intercalated segment instability (DISI) deformity, and changes in the contact area of the bones in the radiocarpal joint. Eleven patients with scaphoid nonunions were examined with 3-dimensional computed tomography and a new method of proximity mapping. Two different patterns of displacement of scaphoid nonunions were demonstrated, 1 volar and 1 dorsal. All patients with a volar pattern scaphoid nonunion had a DISI deformity. Only a few of the patients with a dorsal pattern scaphoid nonunion, mostly in longstanding nonunions, had a DISI deformity. The fracture line was generally distal to the dorsal apex of the ridge of the scaphoid in the volar-type fractures and proximal in the dorsal displaced fractures. The proximity map of the distal fragment of the scaphoid on the radius in the volar type shifts radial compared with normal; in the distal type it shifts dorsal. Neither of the patterns showed any significant changes of the proximity map in the radiocarpal joint at the proximal scaphoid fragment and the lunate. Whether the fracture line passes distal or proximal to the dorsal apex of the ridge of the scaphoid appears to determine the likelihood of subsequent fracture displacement, DISI deformity, and contact area of the bones in the radiocarpal joint.     

The natural history of scaphoid non-union

A retrospective radiographic and clinical analysis of 102 symptomatic patients with 104 scaphoid non-unions of at least 1 year's duration was conducted. Osteoarthritis occurred in 22% of non-unions of less than 5 years' duration, 75% of those of 5 to 9 years' duration, and 100% of those of 10 years' duration or more. An all-over incidence of osteoarthritis in the wrist was 55%. Osteoarthritic changes occurred initially at the scaphoid-radial styloid joint which were manifested by radial styloid pointing and/or dorsal radioscaphoid osteophyte formation, later progressing to the midcarpal joint. Osteoarthritis at the scaphoid-radial styloid joint was significantly associated with dorsiflexed intercalated segment instability (DISI) deformity. An overall incidence of DISI deformity of the wrist was 56%, and the frequency of DISI pattern increased with longer duration of non-union. There was an increased incidence of avascular necrosis of the proximal fragment with time, especially after 20 years. There was no correlation between symptoms of pain and the severity of arthritis or the duration of non-union, but a good correlation between the duration of non-union and reduced grip strength or decreased wrist motion. A symptomatic non-union of the scaphoid is significantly likely to progress to osteoarthritis according to a predictable sequence, becoming worse both radiographically and clinically with time.     

Treatment of scaphoid fractures and nonunions

Scaphoid fractures are common but present unique challenges because of the particular geometry of the fractures and the tenuous vascular pattern of the scaphoid. Delays in diagnosis and inadequate treatment for acute scaphoid fractures can lead to nonunions and subsequent degenerative wrist arthritis. Improvements in diagnosis, surgical treatment, and implant materials have encouraged a trend toward early internal fixation, even for nondisplaced scaphoid fractures that could potentially be treated nonoperatively. Despite the advent of newly developed fixation techniques, including open and percutaneous fixation, the nonunion rate for scaphoid fractures remains as high as 10% after surgical treatment. Scaphoid nonunions can present with or without avascular necrosis of the proximal pole and may show a humpback deformity on the radiograph. If left untreated, scaphoid nonunions can progress to carpal collapse and degenerative arthritis. Surgical treatment is directed at correcting the deformity with open reduction and internal fixation with bone grafting. Recently, vascularized bone grafts have gained popularity in the treatment of scaphoid nonunions, particularly in cases with avascular necrosis. This article reviews current concepts regarding the treatment of scaphoid fractures and nonunions.     

Unstable scaphoid fracture nonunion: a medium-term study of anterior wedge grafting procedures

A retrospective review of 37 patients with scaphoid fracture nonunions treated by interpositional bone grafting and internal fixation was conducted at an average follow-up of 5.7 years. Solid radiographic union was achieved in 35 cases. Preexisting avascular necrosis was a major adverse factor for achievement of union and satisfactory outcome. Based on the modified Mayo wrist-scoring system, 15 patients had an excellent result, 11 had a good result, four had a fair result and seven had a poor result. Patients with preexisting degenerative changes had a significantly worse clinical outcome. The vast majority of the patients had satisfactory correction of scaphoid length and the associated dorsal intercalated segment instability (DISI). Although 30 patients showed radiographic evidence of mild or moderate degenerative changes at their latest follow-up, there was no significant progression of arthrosis and the scaphoid nonunion advanced carpal collapse deformity did not progress after healing of the fracture nonunion.     

Management of scaphoid nonunions with vascularized bone grafts from the distal radius: mid- to long-term follow-up

Scaphoid nonunion represents a challenging problem that leads to disability if neglected. Vascularized bone grafts are proposed to augment the local biology and increase the likelihood of union but long-term outcomes are sparse. In this work, we present the mid- to long-term outcome of 140 scaphoid nonunions managed with vascularized bone grafts from the distal radius. Sixteen patients underwent concomitant closed wedge osteotomy of the distal radius because of arthritic changes. There were 130 males and ten females, with mean time from injury to surgery 3.3 years. Delayed presentation was associated with arthritic changes. Forty-two patients had avascular necrosis of the proximal pole and sixteen had more severe arthritic changes. The mean follow-up was 10 years. Pain decreased postoperatively but range of motion did not improve but only in early reconstructions. Grip strength reached 79% of the non-injured hand. Mayo modified wrist score improved from 56 to 84 (p < 0.001). Except one, all the rest 139 nonunions healed in a mean time of 9 weeks. MRI evaluation in 77 patients revealed healing at a mean of 3 months postoperatively even in cases of avascular necrosis. Scaphoid length, carpal height, and scapholunate angle increased, but capitolunate did not change significantly. The presence of arthritis preoperatively was associated with progression of arthritic changes after 10 years. Treatment of scaphoid nonunions with vascularized bone grafts from distal radius reliably led to highest rate of bone healing with good mid- to long-term outcomes. Enhancement of the local biology and reconstitution of scaphoid and carpal height resulted in improved function mostly in early interventions.     

Degenerative arthritis of the ankle secondary to long-standing lateral ligament instability.

Long-standing lateral ligament instability of the ankle results in unbalanced loading of the medial joint space and the possible development of degenerative arthritis. Thirty-six patients who had had lateral ankle instability for at least ten years and complaints of increasing ankle pain evidence degenerative changes of the articular cartilage over the medial half of the talar and tibial surfaces of the ankle joint. These changes were minimally apparent on roentgenograms unless weight-bearing roentgenograms were made, but arthroscopy of the joint accurately revealed the extent of degeneration. After reconstruction of the lateral ankle ligaments, fourteen of twenty-two patients with mild to moderate arthritic changes showed both symptomatic improvement and demonstrable widening of the medial joint space on weight-bearing roentgenograms. Four of five patients with severe degenerative arthritis subsequently had a total ankle replacement.     

Treatment of scaphoid nonunions by Russe bone grafting--a retrospective analysis

Forty-five patients with symptomatic established delayed union and nonunion of the scaphoid were operated between January 1983 and December 1997. The Russe anterior corticocancellous bone-grafting was performed in twenty-five cases. Using a grading system, we analyzed the suitability of this method, for three types of nonunion. We attained a 92% bony union rate of all nonunions grafted. Review of the relevant literature shows that there was same significant difference in union rates between the types of nonunion, the vascularity of the proximal fragment and the presence of dorsal intercalated segment instability (DISI). The aims of this procedure are to obtain a good functional wrist without pain and to prevent late arthritis.     

The SLAC wrist: scapholunate advanced collapse pattern of degenerative arthritis

Four thousand wrist x-ray films were reviewed to establish the pattern of sequential changes in degenerative arthritis of the wrist. After eliminating all other arthritides, we studied 210 cases of degenerative arthritis. The most common pattern (57%) was arthritis between the scaphoid, lunate, and radius; 27% of cases occurred between the scaphoid, trapezium, and trapezoid; a combination of these two patterns occurred in 15%. Twenty operations were performed on 19 patients with the scapholunate advanced collapse pattern. Eighteen of 19 patients had less pain postoperatively and none required pain medication. Flexion-extension and radial-ulnar deviation motions showed considerable improvement after the operation.     

Avascular necrosis after scaphoid fracture: a correlation of magnetic resonance imaging and histology

In this study 12 male patients with fractures of the middle third of the scaphoid had an magnetic resonance imaging study before open reduction and internal fixation in conjunction with bone grafting of the scaphoid. The patients' average age was 27 years (range, 17 to 37 years). At the time of surgery biopsy specimens were obtained from both the proximal and distal poles of the scaphoid. The length of time before surgery ranged from a minimum of 1 1/2 months in recently displaced fractures to a maximum of 10 years in established nonunions. Results of the biopsy showed that six patients had avascular necrosis noted in the proximal pole fragment. In three of these six patients avascular necrosis was confirmed by the absence of tetracycline labeling despite positive uptake noted in biopsy specimens from the bone graft site; the other three patients did not receive tetracycline labeling. Magnetic resonance imaging showed that all six of the patients with biopsy specimens of the proximal poles showing avascular necrosis demonstrated decreased signal intensity in the proximal pole fragment, whereas the plain radiographs demonstrated changes in the proximal pole in only three of the six patients. A decreased signal intensity from the proximal pole of the scaphoid may indicate a poor prognosis inasmuch as only three of the six patients had healing of the fracture even with bone grafting and internal fixation.     

Natural history of scaphoid non-union, with special reference to "asymptomatic" cases.

33 patients with non-union of the carpal scaphoid were diagnosed by X-ray examination two to 37 years following the original trauma. All of the patients could be contacted and summoned for a re-examination ten to 17 years later. X-rays revealed a 100% incidence of progressive radio-carpal osteoarthritis. It is concluded that freedom of pain is not a reliable prognostic indicator, and that all patients with non-union of the carpal scaphoid are likely to benefit from surgical treatment of the pseudarthrosis. The only exception to this rule might be the patient in whom the radio-carpal joint is already deteriorated by an advanced degenerative arthritis.     

Osteochondritis dissecans following Perthes' disease. Arthroscopic-operative treatment

Osteochondritis dissecans is seen after skeletal maturity is reached in approximately 3% of adults who have had Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease as children. This diagnosis should be considered in the patient with hip pain, locking or catching, or early degenerative joint disease. In a series of 465 patients treated for Perthes' disease, 14 later developed osteochondritis dissecans. In asymptomatic hips, no treatment is indicated. In symptomatic patients, arthroscopic surgery of the hip has been employed to remove the loose osteocartilaginous fragment and to diagnose degenerative joint disease. Although removal of the osteocartilaginous fragment may not be indicated in patients with severe degenerative arthritis, an osteotomy to redirect the femoral head (valgus extension osteotomy) may be beneficial.     

Power staple fixation in hand and wrist surgery: new applications of an old fixation device

After laboratory testing power driven staples were used in metaphyseal type bone 39 times from December 1983 through April 1985 in 33 patients with hand or wrist problems. Applications included arthrodeses, nonunions, and osteotomy fixation. Diagnoses included rheumatoid and degenerative arthritis, scaphoid, and interphalangeal nonunions. There were no infections, and only one staple has broken. There has been little evidence of loosening or inflammation. Shattering of bone has not occurred; osteoporotic bone appears to be ideal tissue in which to use this fixation.     

Percutaneous pinning of symptomatic scaphoid nonunions

A prospective study was conducted to determine whether multiple percutaneous pinning of symptomatic scaphoid nonunions could result in union. All patients had symptomatic nonunions, confirmed by x-ray film, and of sufficient severity to interfere with activities of daily living or military duties. Eighteen patients had pinning with two to four 0.045-inch C-wires guided by image intensification. All nonunions were immobilized in below the elbow thumb spica casts until healed. Thirteen patients, treated by our protocol, had adequate follow-up of an average of 10.3 months. Bony union occurred in 10 (77%) cases, asymptomatic fibrous union occurred in two, and one failed to unite. Complications were few.     

Development of degenerative changes in the wrist with pseudarthrosis of the scaphoid bone

In patients with symptomatic scaphoid nonunion there was an increased evidence of progessive osteoarthrosis expressed as instability of the wrist; it is defined as a scapholunate angle more than 70 degrees or a radiolunate angle of more than 10 degrees. We tried to determine the factors of risk and prognostic indicators of degenerative arthritis. In this study 40 patients with painfull nonunion of the scaphoid were analysed. Duration of nonunion was not in correlation with development of osteoarthritic changes (p=0,644; p>0,05). Progessive degenerative changes correlated well with radiolunate angle (p=0,398; p<0,05), kapitolunate angle (p=0,381; p<0,05) and carpal index (p=0,392; p<0,05). The average values of intercarpal angles increased with progression of osteoarthritic changes. There was a statistically strong corelation between location of fracture in proximal third and presence of degenerative changes (p=0,341; p<0,01). Intesity of arthritic changes showed no statistically significant correlation regarding untreated fractures (p=0,665; p>0,05). We recommend that a scaphoid nonunion associated with carpal instability should be operated before degenerative changes develop.     

Patterns of carpal deformity in scaphoid nonunion: a 3-dimensional and quantitative analysis

PURPOSE: To clarify quantitatively the 3-dimensional deformity of the carpus in scaphoid nonunion on the basis of fracture location. METHODS: Three-dimensional computed tomography was used to examine 20 patients with scaphoid nonunion. Displacements of the distal and proximal fragments of the scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and capitate were visualized and quantified using a 3-dimensional image-matching technology. Cases were categorized as distal fracture (16 cases) or proximal fracture (4 cases) based on the location of the fracture line relative to the dorsal apex of the scaphoid ridge where the dorsal scapholunate interosseous ligament is attached. RESULTS: The displayed distal scaphoid fractures showed that the proximal fragment of the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum rotated into extension and supination. The distal fragment of the scaphoid and capitate translated dorsally without notable rotation. The deformity in proximal fractures was less remarkable than that in distal fractures. Most distal scaphoid nonunions had dorsal intercalated segment instability deformity patterns, whereas a dorsal intercalated segment instability occurred in only 1 case of a proximal fracture. CONCLUSIONS: Whether the fracture line passes distal or proximal to the dorsal apex of the scaphoid determines the subsequent carpal deformity. Dorsal translation of the distal fragment might be one of the factors in the development of degenerative change at the radial styloid.     

Degenerative changes at the scaphotrapezial joint following Herbert screw insertion: a radiographic study comparing patients with scaphoid fracture and primary hand arthritis

One method of Herbert screw insertion is to mobilize the scaphotrapezial joint and insert the screw through the articular surface of the distal scaphoid. Because of concern that this might predispose to osteoarthritis in the scaphotrapezial joint, we have investigated joint space width and the presence of osteophytes adjacent to the scaphotrapezial joint using high definition macroradiography.Twenty-eight patients with symptomatic primary osteoarthritis of their hands, 23 with a scaphoid fracture successfully treated conservatively and 18 treated with a Herbert screw were studied. The patients with primary osteoarthritis of their hands had more narrowing of the scaphotrapezial joint compared with the other two groups, but patients treated with a Herbert screw had a significantly higher incidence of osteophytosis on the distal scaphoid than the other two groups. With Herbert screw fixation, osteophytosis on the distal scaphoid may cause impingement and pain, and be a predictor of further degenerative joint changes.