Decompressive surgery in the treatment of traumatic brain injury

According to European Brain Injury Consortium (EBIC) and American Brain Injury Consortium (ABIC) guidelines for severe head injuries, decompressive craniectomy is one therapeutic option for brain edema that does not respond to conventional therapeutic measures. As a result of the failure of all recently developed drugs to improve outcome in this patient group, decompressive craniectomy has experienced a revival during the last decade. Although class I studies of this subject are still lacking, there is strong evidence from prospective, uncontrolled trials that such an operation improves outcome in general and also has beneficial effects on various physiologic parameters that are known to be independent predictors for poor outcome. Whether this operation should be performed in a protocol-driven or in a prophylactic manner remains unclear. Decompressive craniectomy may, however, be the only method available in developing countries with limited ICU and monitoring resources. Prospectively controlled and randomized studies to definitively evaluate the effect of this old neurosurgical method on outcome in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) are forthcoming.     

大骨瓣开颅个体化减压术治疗重型颅脑损伤脑疝患者的效果观察

目的探讨大骨瓣开颅个体化减压术对重型颅脑损伤脑疝患者的手术方法和治疗效果。方法回顾性分析2007年1月至2010年9月采用大骨瓣开颅个体化减压术治疗98例重型颅脑损伤脑疝患者的效果。结果伤后6个月GOS评估法判定其疗效：良好（5分）27例,中残（4分）23例,重残（3分）28例,植物生存（2分）6例,死亡（1分）14例;预后较好（良好和中残）者占51％,预后较差或差（重残、植物生存和死亡）者占49％。结论大骨瓣开颅个体化减压术治疗重型颅脑损伤脑疝患者有较好疗效,能有效降低大骨瓣减压术后并发症的发生。     

The influence of clinical evidence on surgical practice

Given the considerable interest in the use of evidence‐based medicine to guide clinical practice, it is surprising that the results of a recent randomized controlled trial have been met with such a limited response. The DECompressive CRAniectomy study investigators have recently published the results of a landmark trial in neurosurgery, comparing early decompressive craniectomy with standard medical therapy in patients who developed intracranial hypertension after diffuse closed traumatic brain injury (TBI). This is the first ever randomized controlled trial investigating the surgical management of adult patients with severe TBI. The trial clearly demonstrated that early decompression did not provide clinical benefit; however, rather than having a significant impact on clinical practice, it has been almost uniformly criticized. While there were some problems with randomization and crossover, we feel that the trial has been somewhat misinterpreted and in this article we address some of the key issues.     

Long-term outcome of severe herpes simplex encephalitis: a population-based observational study

IntroductionHerpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a rare disease with a poor prognosis. No recent evaluation of hospital incidence, acute mortality and morbidity is available. In particular, decompressive craniectomy has rarely been proposed in cases of life-threatening HSE with temporal herniation, in the absence of evidence. This study aimed to assess the hospital incidence and mortality of HSE, and to evaluate the characteristics, management, the potential value of decompressive craniectomy and the outcome of patients with HSE admitted to intensive care units (ICUs).MethodsEpidemiological study: we used the hospital medical and administrative discharge database to identify hospital stays, deaths and ICU admissions relating to HSE in 39 hospitals, from 2010 to 2013. Retrospective monocentric cohort: all patients with HSE admitted to the ICU of the university hospital during the study were included. The use of decompressive craniectomy and long-term outcome were analyzed. The initial brain images were analyzed blind to outcome.ResultsThe hospital incidence of HSE was 1.2/100,000 inhabitants per year, 32 % of the patients were admitted to ICUs and 17 % were mechanically ventilated. Hospital mortality was 5.5 % overall, but was as high as 11.9 % in ICUs. In the monocentric cohort, 87 % of the patients were still alive after one year but half of them had moderate to severe disability. Three patients had a high intracranial pressure (ICP) with brain herniation and eventually underwent decompressive hemicraniectomy. The one-year outcome of these patients did not seem to be different from that of the other patients. It was not possible to predict brain herniation reliably from the initial brain images.ConclusionsHSE appears to be more frequent than historically reported. The high incidence we observed probably reflects improvements in diagnostic performance (routine use of PCR). Mortality during the acute phase and long-term disability appear to be stable. High ICP and brain herniation are rare, but must be monitored carefully, as initial brain imaging is not useful for identifying high-risk patients. Decompressive craniectomy may be a useful salvage procedure in cases of intractable high ICP.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13054-015-1046-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

迟发性脑水肿三种不同治疗方法疗效比较

目的比较骨瓣减压术＋钙离子拮抗剂＋脱水剂、钙离子拮抗剂＋脱水剂、加强脱水剂三种治疗方法在迟发性脑水肿患者中的临床疗效.方法迟发性脑水肿患者51例,其中23例进行去骨瓣减压术,术后予以联合脱水＋钙离子拮抗剂治疗,15例采取联合脱水＋钙离子拮抗剂治疗,13例仅接受（加强）脱水剂治疗,比较三种不同治疗方案的疗效.结果去骨瓣减压术＋钙离子拮抗剂＋脱水剂组患者存活率95.65%,长期较好存活率78.26%;钙离子拮抗剂＋脱水剂组患者存活率93.33%%,长期较好存活率60.00%;单纯脱水组存活率76.90%,长期较好存活率15.30%.结论与单纯的药物治疗相比,去骨瓣减压术＋钙离子拮抗剂＋脱水剂对迟发性脑水肿具有更佳的疗效,并能有效减少远期功能障碍.     

Is decompressive craniectomy useless in severe traumatic brain injury?

Recently, a multicenter randomized controlled trial (RCT) by Cooper and colleagues indicated that decompressive craniectomy (DC) may be associated with a worse functional outcome in patients with diffuse traumatic brain injury (TBI), although DC can immediately and constantly reduce intracranial pressure (ICP). As this trial is well planned and of high quality, the unexpected result is meaningful. However, the evidence of the study is insufficient and the effect of DC in severe TBI is still uncertain. Additional multicenter RCTs are necessary to provide class I evidence on the role of DC in the treatment of refractory raised ICP after severe TBI.     

Craniectomy in severe, life-threatening encephalitis: a report on outcome and long-term prognosis of four cases

OBJECTIVE: To report the feasibility of craniectomy with duraplasty in four patients with life-threatening encephalitis and, in particular, their long-term outcome. DESIGN: Report of four cases, analysis of the acute clinical course and neurological long-term sequelae. RESULTS: Generous craniectomy with duraplasty was performed in four patients with life-threatening encephalitis leading to decortication and decerebration. This treatment approach reduced intracranial pressure. The long-term sequelae (1.5-8 years after craniectomy) confirmed its appropriateness, having led to full neurological (cerebral) function, resocialization, and reintegration into their professional life in all four patients. CONCLUSION: Craniectomy with dural augmentation is a treatment approach in cases of severe space-occupying encephalitis, not only saving the patient's life but also leading to favorable long-term outcome.     

重型颅脑损伤急行双侧去大骨瓣减压术后立即应用尼莫地平的临床疗效观察

目的通过实验对比观察分析重型颅脑损伤急行双侧去大骨瓣减压术后立即应用尼莫地平的临床作用效果。方法 128重型颅脑损伤急性双侧去大骨瓣减压术后患者随机分成两组,照组患者进行术后常规治疗,实验组患者术后进行常规治疗的同时立即应用尼莫地平。观察比较两组的临床疗效。结果两组患者的治疗方法均有明显效果(P<0.05),但是两组差异无显著性(P>0.05)。实验组治疗后1个月及治疗后6个月的简易精神状态检查(MMSE)评分均高于对照组(P<0.05)。结论重型颅脑损伤急行双侧去大骨瓣减压术后立即应用尼莫地平能够明显提高患者的术后疗效,有助于患者的精神状态恢复。建议去大骨瓣减压术后立即应用尼莫地平。     

大骨瓣减压治疗重型颅脑损伤疗效分析

目的探讨大骨瓣减压比较常规骨瓣减压治疗重型、特重型颅脑损伤的疗效和优势。方法回顾性分析本科近年收治的263例重型颅脑损伤（GCS≤8分）患者，治疗组135例[含特重治疗组（GCS≤5分）54例]采用标准大骨瓣开颅术减压，对照组128例（含特重对照组49例）采用常规骨瓣减压。术后6个月，比较GOS评定和并发症。结果治疗组有效96例（71.1％），对照组为75例（58.6％），P〈0.05；特重治疗组有效34例（63％），特重对照组为18例（36.7％），P〈0.01。治疗组在术后因继发颅内高压而再次手术的发生率低于对照组（P〈0.05），但术后迟发血肿和对侧硬膜下积液发生率多于对照组（P〈0，05）。结论大骨瓣减压治疗重型，尤其是特重型颅脑损伤，能提高治疗效率；减少因继发颅内高压而再次手术的发生；但术后迟发血肿和对侧硬膜下积液增多。     

Pediatric traumatic brain injury: not just little adults

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review will update the reader on the most significant recent findings with regards to both the clinical research and basic science of pediatric traumatic brain injury. RECENT FINDINGS: The developing brain is not simply a smaller version of the mature brain. Studies have uncovered important distinctions of the younger brain after traumatic brain injury, including an increased propensity for apoptosis, age-dependent parameters for cerebral blood flow and metabolism, development-specific biomarkers, increased likelihood of early posttraumatic seizures, differential sensitivity to commonly used neuroactive medications and altered neuroplasticity during recovery from injury. Specifically, there is strong preclinical evidence for increased neuronal apoptosis in the developing brain being triggered by anesthetics and anticonvulsants, making it paramount that future studies more clearly delineate preferred agents and specific indications for use, incorporating long-term functional outcomes as well as short-term benefits. In addition, the young brain may actually benefit from therapeutic interventions that have been less effective following adult traumatic brain injury, such as decompressive craniectomy and hypothermia. SUMMARY: An increasing body of evidence demonstrates the importance of establishing age-dependent guidelines for physiological monitoring, pharmacological intervention, management of intracranial pressure and facilitating recovery of function.     

两种手术治疗重型颅脑外伤的应用价值比较

目的探讨大骨瓣减压术与常规开颅手术治疗重型颅脑外伤的临床效果比较。方法选取黄冈市中心医院68例重型颅脑外伤患者,研究组34例行大骨瓣减压术,对照组34例行常规开颅手术,治疗结束6个月后对两组患者的疗效及并发症情况进行评价。结果研究组患者总治疗有效率为82.35%,明显高于对照组的64.71%,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）;研究组在急性脑膨出、迟发性血肿、切口脑脊液漏及癫痫发生率为11.76%,明显低于对照组的32.35%,差异有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论大骨瓣减压术治疗重型颅脑外伤较常规开颅手术疗效安全可靠,值得临床推广应用。     

去骨瓣减压术后硬膜下积液的临床研究

目的总结去骨瓣减压术后硬膜下积液的治疗体会。方法回顾性的分析37例患者采用文章中不同治疗方法。结果全部病例中30例痊愈，7例出院时大部分消失。结论去骨瓣减压术后硬膜下积液选择恰当的方法能取得良好的治疗效果。     

Use of decompressive craniectomy after severe head trauma

Ten percent of head injuries quality as "severe," requiring prompt diagnosis and treatment. This level I trauma center uses an aggressive approach to treatment of severe head injuries and, when indicated, intervenes with decompressive craniectomy. This article explains decompressive craniectomy, including indications, procedures, and protocols. The case studies presented highlight two patients with profound head injuries. Additionally, cranioplasty replacement of autograft flap is explained and discussed.     

Effects of unilateral decompressive craniectomy on patients with unilateral acute post-traumatic brain swelling after severe traumatic brain injury

Introduction  

Acute post-traumatic brain swelling (BS) is one of the pathological forms that need emergent treatment following traumatic brain injury. There is controversy about the effects of craniotomy on acute post-traumatic BS. The aim of the present clinical study was to assess the efficacy of unilateral decompressive craniectomy (DC) or unilateral routine temporoparietal craniectomy on patients with unilateral acute post-traumatic BS.     

223例标准大骨瓣开颅手术临床分析

[目的]探讨分析大骨瓣减压术治疗重型颅脑损伤中的临床预后及影响因素.[方法]回顾性分析本院采用大骨瓣减压术治疗的223例重型颅脑损伤患者资料分析影响患者预后的因素.[结果]根据格拉斯哥预后评分（GOS）,恢复良好（GOS 5分）62例,中残（GOS 4分）53例,重残（GOS 3分）32例,植物生存（GOS 2分）12例,死亡（GOS 1分）64例.Logistic 回归分析表明GCS评分、年龄、脑疝与否及手术减压时间是影响重型颅脑损伤预后的独立因素.伤后1.5 h内完成手术减压者预后明显优于其他患者.31例（13.9%）发生迟发性颅内血肿,其中硬膜外血肿占74.2%（23例）.[结论]重型颅脑损伤死残率高,标准大骨瓣减压术效果确切,手术减压时间是唯一可控制的影响手术预后的因素,发病后1.5 h内手术减压疗效最佳.     

重型颅脑外伤患者外科治疗后远隔位置再次手术的影响因素分析

[目的]探讨重型颅脑外伤患者外科治疗后远隔位置再次手术的影响因素.[方法]回顾性分析本院收治的92例重型颅脑外伤患者的临床资料,其中20例远隔部位行再次手术(再次手术组),72例无需手术(非再次手术组).单因素和Logistic因素分析重型颅脑外伤患者外科治疗后远隔位置再次手术的相关因素.[结果]脑干伤、脑积水、着力部...     

40例大面积脑梗死患者不同治疗方法分析比较

目的比较大面积脑梗死内科治疗和去骨瓣减压术治疗的疗效差异,并分析GCS评分与大面积脑梗死患者预后关系。方法40例脑梗死患者入院时均经头颅CT扫描和APACHEⅡ、APACHEⅢ、GCS评分,并予降颅压及系统支持治疗,其中18例内科治疗,22例作去骨瓣减压术。结果手术治疗22例中死亡13例,好转出院9例;内科治疗18例中死亡15例,好转3例。结论GCS评分≤5分的大面积脑梗死患者行去骨瓣减压术与保守治疗疗效差异无显著性,而GCS≥6分患者采取手术治疗预后较好。     

重型颅脑损伤患者并发脑积水的相关因素分析

目的探讨影响重型颅脑损伤患者发生脑积水的相关因素。方法回顾性分析127例重型颅脑损伤患者的临床资料,采用非条件Logistic回归,对去骨瓣减压术、弥漫性蛛网膜下腔出血、脑室内出血、术前GCS评分、患者年龄、性别与发生脑积水是否相关进行分析。结果Logistic回归显示去骨瓣减压术（P=0．004）、术前蛛网膜下腔出血（P=0．011）、年龄（P=0．018）及脑室出血（P=0．003）与发生脑积水相关,具有统计学意义。结论行去骨瓣减压术治疗、术前有弥漫性蛛网膜下腔出血、高龄及有脑室内出血是重型颅脑损伤患者发生脑积水的重要危险因素。     

Instruments for assessing quality of life in palliative care settings

Quality of life is an outcome that is particularly important during palliative care. However, in order to measure this outcome, it is necessary to have a valid and reliable measure. The purpose of the article was to identify and describe quality of life measures that are appropriate for use in palliative care settings. Characteristics that are believed to be critical for quality of life instruments include the following. The instrument should: (1) be multidimensional; (2) provide self-report data; (3) be useful in the setting in which it is to be used; (4) be valid and reliable for use in palliative care settings. The five scales described measure a variety of dimensions including physical, psychological, social, spiritual, existential, support, symptoms and functional aspects of quality of life. All but one are self-report instruments. All have evidence of validity and reliability for use with palliative care populations.     

Severe traumatic brain injury managed with decompressive craniectomy

Patients with severe traumatic brain injury may develop intractable raised ICP resulting in high mortality and morbidity. This may be anticipated from the patient's clinical status and imaging findings even where intracranial monitoring is unavailable. Outcome may be improved by early and aggressive control of ICP and surgical decompressive craniectomy is increasingly advocated as necessary.