Evaluation of the French version of the Orientation Towards Chocolate Questionnaire: chocolate-related guilt and ambivalence are associated with overweight and disordered eating

The aims of this study were firstly to evaluate the psychometric properties of the French version of the Orientation towards Chocolate Questionnaire (OCQ), secondly to examine differences in chocolate craving as a function of weight status, and thirdly to examine the OCQ craving dimensions as predictors of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Participants included 247 female students from the University of Toulouse, France, who completed measures of chocolate craving, body dissatisfaction, bulimia, drive for thinness, and emotional eating, and for whom body mass index (BMI) was available. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor model of the OCQ, with guilt, approach, and avoidance subscales. Patterns of endorsement of chocolate craving dimensions differed according to weight status, with ambivalence present only amongst overweight participants. Guilt and approach were positively associated with disordered eating, whereas avoidance was negatively associated with bulimia. These results confirm the validity and reliability of the French version of the OCQ and highlight strong associations between chocolate craving dimensions and disordered eating patterns.     

A multidimensional ambivalence model of chocolate craving: construct validity and associations with chocolate consumption and disordered eating

This study tested the construct validity of a multidimensional ambivalence model of chocolate craving, and examined the concurrent and discriminant validity of the model with respect to chocolate consumption and disordered eating behaviors. The Orientation to Chocolate Questionnaire (OCQ) was administered to 312 university students (79.5% female) along with measures of chocolate consumption and disordered eating. Results supported a three-factor model of chocolate craving incorporating approach and avoidance inclinations and feelings of guilt. These craving dimensions differentially predicted frequency and quantity of chocolate consumption as well as a range of disordered eating behaviors. Chocolate-related guilt was a consistent indicator of dysfunctional eating patterns, but was unrelated to external or functional eating. Approach inclinations positively predicted consumption-oriented eating behaviors and negatively predicted avoidance-oriented behaviors. Active avoidance inclinations facilitated restraint and inhibited frequency of consumption, but were unrelated to quantity consumed. In line with contemporary theories of substance craving, chocolate craving can be conceptualized as a net action disposition resulting from the relative strength of the competing processes underlying indulgence and restraint.     

Tests of an extension of the dual pathway model of bulimic symptoms to the state-based level

The dual pathway model proposes that trait body dissatisfaction leads to bulimic symptoms via two distinct pathways: dieting and trait negative affect. As many of these modelled variables have state-based equivalents, the present study evaluated the generalisability of this model to predict associations between state body dissatisfaction and instances of disordered eating. 124 women aged 18 to 40 years completed an online survey (accessed via a mobile phone device with web access) over a 7-day period. The mobile phone device prompted participants at random intervals seven times daily to self-report their state body dissatisfaction, current mood experiences, dieting attempts, and disordered eating practices. Multi-level mediation modelling revealed that both negative mood states and dieting significantly mediated the state body dissatisfaction–disordered eating relationships, although the strength of these associations depended on the aspect of disordered eating measured and individual differences in trait body dissatisfaction, internalization of appearance standards, tendency towards dieting, and BMI. Collectively, these results not only support adapting the dual pathway model to the state-level, but also suggest that several of the model implied pathways may be more relevant for individuals with more pathological eating- and body-related concerns and behaviours.     

Negative emotion and disordered eating among obese college students

The present study examined the relationship between negative emotions, body dissatisfaction, exercise, and disordered eating attitudes and behaviors among obese college students. It also examined whether there were gender differences in these variables. A total of 88 males and 102 females, who reported a BMI score above 30, completed a survey. Females reported higher levels of disordered eating, body dissatisfaction, and more frequent dieting than males and as predicted, males reported higher levels of exercise behaviors. Body dissatisfaction, anger discomfort, and self dissatisfaction all correlated with drive for thinness for both genders. Anger discomfort was the only variable to predict disordered eating for both genders. The results support numerous studies that have found that females are at greater risk of disordered eating than males, and also suggest that anger management may be an important component in treatment of disordered eating among obese young adults.     

Body image flexibility as a protective factor against disordered eating behavior for women with lower body mass index

The purpose of the current study was to examine whether body dissatisfaction and body image flexibility would be uniquely and significantly associated with disordered eating behavior. In addition, the study examined if body mass index (BMI) moderated the relationships between each of the body image related variables and disordered eating. Two-hundred-fifty-eight female participants completed the web-based survey. Body dissatisfaction and body image flexibility were significantly related to disordered eating behavior, after controlling for ethnicity and BMI, and BMI moderated the relation between body image flexibility and disordered eating. Specifically, for those with low BMI, greater body image flexibility was associated with reduced disordered eating behavior. Body image flexibility was not associated with disordered eating behavior among those with average or high BMI. These results suggest that greater body image flexibility may serve as a protective factor against disordered eating behaviors for those with low BMI.     

The Attitudes to Chocolate Questionnaire: psychometric properties and relationship to dimensions of eating

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Attitudes to Chocolate Questionnaire (ACQ). We analyzed the factor structure of the ACQ by conducting exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in a sample of healthy adults and a sample of dietician students. Further, the relationship between the resulting ACQ factors and dimensions of eating behavior, personality, emotionality, and tests of the pleasantness, sweetness, and intensity of sugar and chocolate was examined. The results yielded a clear two-factor structure of the ACQ: The first factor (guilt) was composed of items concerning negative consequences of chocolate eating including the feeling of guilt. The second factor (craving) comprised items related to craving and emotional chocolate eating. Guilt correlated significantly with "emotional eating", "restrained eating", and with neuroticism. Craving correlated significantly with "emotional eating" and "external eating", with neuroticism, and with the "difficulty identifying feelings" facet of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale; further, it correlated highly with the average reported chocolate consumption and with the ratings of the intensity of taste of sugar. In conclusion, results support the validity of the German version of the ACQ and showed a stable factor structure and a good internal consistency.     

Body dissatisfaction and dieting in young children

OBJECTIVE: To develop a broader understanding of young children's knowledge and beliefs about dieting and body dissatisfaction. METHOD: Sixty-two third through sixth-grade boys and girls completed audiotaped interviews and questionnaires regarding eating behavior, attitudes toward dieting, and body dissatisfaction. RESULTS: Fifty percent of all children wanted to weigh less and 16% reported attempting weight loss. Children were well informed about dieting and were most likely to believe that dieting meant changing food choices and exercising as opposed to restricting intake. Their primary source of information was the family. Seventy-seven percent of children mentioned hearing about dieting from a family member, usually a parent. DISCUSSION: Young children are knowledgeable about dieting and the concept of dieting does not necessarily mean caloric restriction to them. These data suggest that the family can play a powerful role in countering the development of eating concerns and body dissatisfaction in children.     

Reconceptualization of body image and drive for thinness

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the nature of body image and drive for thinness as multidimensional constructs. Subjects included 111 early adolescent (ages 11-13) girls in Grades 7 and 8 from a private school in Melbourne. METHOD: The participants completed a suite of perceptual, affective/attitudinal, and behavioral measures that included assessment of body mass index, self-concept, body parts, silhouette discrepancy, self-worth, multidimensional body image, body image dissatisfaction, social physique anxiety, eating attitudes and behaviors, and physical activity. RESULTS: The sample reported moderate levels of body image dissatisfaction and a significant association of body image dissatisfaction with drive for thinness. Findings verified the important contribution of the affective/attitudinal components of body image. DISCUSSION: A multidimensional scale devised to test the value of a combined index of self-perceived size, shape, weight, tone, and appearance proved the most effective predictor among the alternative affective/attitudinal scales of body image dissatisfaction. Drive for thinness, as central to this study, was found to be related to, yet distinct from, body image on the basis of behavioral elements such as dieting and activity levels. These findings have ramifications for the design of future research in the body image, drive for thinness, and disordered eating domains. 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Body dissatisfaction mediates the association between body mass index and risky weight control behaviors among White and Native American adolescent girls

The developmental path leading to eating disorders among adolescent girls often proceeds from increasing body size, to increasing body dissatisfaction, to increasing eating disorder (ED) risk. To determine whether body dissatisfaction (BD) mediates the association between body size and risky weight control behaviors, we examined data from White (n=709) and Native American (n=253) girls, who differ substantially in terms of average body mass and reported weight control behaviors. Measures of BD included weight, shape, and appearance concerns. Measures of ED risk included dieting, exercising to control weight, binge eating, and vomiting. Results showed body dissatisfaction was a highly significant mediator of the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and ED risk for both ethnic groups; although, BD did not mediate the association between BMI and binge eating for either group. BD is apparently an important mediator of the association between body size and some, but not all, risky weight control behaviors.     

The sociocultural model of eating disorder development: application to a Guatemalan sample

Exposure to Western ideals of appearance along with rapid societal change appears to be salient risk factors for eating disorder development. According to the sociocultural model, internalization of the thin ideal leads to body dissatisfaction and subsequent negative affect and dieting behaviors which increase the risk for eating disorder development. An expanded version of the sociocultural model was examined among an economically stratified sample of 347 girls in grades 5 and 6 from Guatemala City. Questionnaires used to measure disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors, body dissatisfaction, social sensitivity, and internalization of the thin ideal were administered and BMI was calculated following measurement of height and weight. Path analyses showed that the expanded sociocultural model was an excellent fit to the data. Both elevated adiposity and social sensitivity led to increased body dissatisfaction and thin ideal internalization. Thin ideal internalization led to body dissatisfaction and to disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors. Results suggest that developing countries are not immune to the influence of sociocultural risk factors for eating disorders.     

Prevalence and correlates of binge eating in white and African American adolescents

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the prevalence and correlates of binge eating in a biracial sample of adolescent males and females. METHOD: White and African American students in Grades 6-12 (N=822) completed measures of social economic status (SES), body mass index (BMI), depression, current-ideal body image discrepancy, eating attitudes, dieting frequency, dietary intake, and activity level. RESULTS: Binge eating prevalence was highest among African American boys relative to the other demographic groups: 26% African American boys, 17% African American girls, 19% white boys, 18% white girls. Binge eating rates increased with age for white participants and decreased with age for African American participants. Depressive symptoms and consumption of high-fat foods predicted binge status among adolescents, whereas SES, BMI, eating attitudes, body image discrepancy, dieting, and low activity level failed to add predictive value. DISCUSSION: The observation of developmental differences in binging between whites and African Americans corresponds to their physical maturational divergence. These findings underscore the need for population-based surveys that sample binge eating across age, gender, and ethnicity.     

Intentional mis-reporting of food consumption and its relationship with body mass index and psychological scores in women

BACKGROUND: The reasons for mis-reporting food consumption warrant investigation. OBJECTIVE: To document intention to mis-report food consumption and its associations with psychological measures in women. DESIGN: A total of 184 female volunteers aged 18-65 years, comprising 50 seeking help in primary care to lose weight with a body mass index (BMI) >/=30 kg m(-2) (obese-clinical group) and 134 nurses (nonclinical groups) (BMI <25 kg m(-2), n = 52; BMI 25-29.9 kg m(-2), n = 45; BMI >/=30 kg m(-2), n = 37) were studied. A questionnaire was administered containing three psychological tests (self-esteem, psychological well-being and Stunkard's three-factor eating questionnaire) and new items to address food intake mis-reporting. RESULTS: Overall, 68% of participants declared an inclination to mis-report (64% nonclinical, 78% clinical). Inclination to under-report was 29, 33 and 51% in the three nonclinical groups; and 46% among the obese clinical patients. Among the same groups, inclination to over-report were 39, 29, 11 and 32%. After adjusting for social deprivation and BMI, women inclined to mis-report had higher hunger (P = 0.008) and disinhibition (P = 0.005) scores than those intending to report accurately. These variables were associated with current dieting, frequency of dieting, self-reported bingeing and dissatisfaction with body weight. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that intentional under-reporting and over-reporting of food consumption are common in women of all BMI categories and are associated with eating behaviour. Current dieting, frequency of dieting in the past, self-reported bingeing and dissatisfaction with body weight seem to mediate this relationship.     

A longitudinal examination of patterns in girls' weight concerns and body dissatisfaction from ages 5 to 9 years

OBJECTIVE: To examine the development of girls' weight concerns and body dissatisfaction from ages 5 to 9 years and how change and continuity in these constructs from age 5 to 7 years is associated with girls' eating attitudes, dietary restraint, and dieting status at age 9. METHODS: Weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status were assessed for 182 girls when they were 5, 7, and 9 years old, and their eating attitudes, dietary restraint, and dieting status were assessed when they were 9. RESULTS: Girls tended to maintain their rank in weight concerns and body dissatisfaction across ages 5 to 9 years, and associations among girls' weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status increased with age. In addition, positive associations were found between changes in girls' weight concerns, body dissatisfaction, and weight status across ages 7 to 9. Finally, girls' who reported high weight concerns or high body dissatisfaction across ages 5 to 7 reported higher dietary restraint, more maladaptive eating attitudes, and a greater likelihood of dieting at age 9, independent of their weight status. CONCLUSION: Girls' reported weight concerns and body dissatisfaction across middle childhood showed consistency over time, were systematically related to their weight status, and predicted their dietary restraint, eating attitudes, and the likelihood of dieting at age 9. These results reflect patterns identified among adolescent girls and women.     

The relationship between friendship factors and adolescent girls' body image concern, body dissatisfaction, and restrained eating

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether poorer friendship relations predict weight concerns and dietary restraint in adolescent girls. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to 131 Year 9 and Year 10 girls to assess the relationship between acceptance by friends, perceived social support, friendship intimacy, and perceived impact of thinness on male (PITOF-M) and female (PITOF-F) friendships on the one hand, and body image concern, body dissatisfaction, and restrained eating on the other. RESULTS: Friendship variables contributed significantly to the prediction of body image concern, body dissatisfaction, and restrained eating. The largest unique contribution to prediction was from the PITOF-M. Poor acceptance by friends significantly predicted the PITOF-M and PITOF-F. Whereas heavier girls were more likely to believe being thinner would improve their friendships, they did not experience poorer friendships. DISCUSSION: Results suggest sociocultural risk factors for disordered eating and underline the importance of perceived peer affiliation on girls' body image concern and dieting.     

Body image and body satisfaction play important roles in the path to dieting behavior in Japanese preadolescents: The Toyama birth cohort study

Objectives To analyze the path to dieting behavior in Japanese preadolescents. Methods A cross-sectional study of dieting behavior among 5,244 preadolescents (2,452 boys and 2,792 girls aged 12–13) born in Toyama prefecture. Results While increasing with body mass index (BMI), the percentage of those who had tried dieting was higher in those who perceived themselves fat than in those who perceived themselves thin or average. Of those who wanted to be thinner, 16.1% of boys and 26.8% of girls had tried dieting. Path analysis in nonobese subjects (2,116 boys and 2,334 girls) showed that (1) body image was primarily based on BMI, (2) body image led to body dissatisfaction, and (3) body dissatisfaction led to dieting behavior. Pubertal changes had a significant effect on body image (path coefficient <0)for boys and body satisfaction (path coefficient >0) for girls, in addition to that on BMI. Maternal BMI had a significant effect on BMI but not on body image, body satisfaction, or dieting behavior. Conclusions Body image and body satisfaction play important roles in the path to dieting behavior in Japanese preadolescents. Pubertal changes may reinforce dieting behavior, but the mechanism may differ by sex.     

The effect of images of thin and overweight body shapes on women's ambivalence towards chocolate

Many women experience ambivalent orientations towards chocolate, both craving for it and having concerns about eating it. The present study investigated the effect of viewing thin and overweight images of models in chocolate advertisements on ambivalent attitudes. Participants were 84 females, aged 17-63, allocated to a thin model condition, an overweight model condition, or a control group. As predicted, following exposure to their respective images, participants in the thin condition had increased avoidance, approach and guilt scores, while participants in the overweight condition had decreased approach and guilt scores, with no change in avoidance. Control participants demonstrated ambivalence, but no changes over time. The findings show that common advertising strategies for chocolate are likely to exacerbate ambivalence in female consumers.     

Disordered eating among preadolescent boys and girls: the relationship with child and maternal variables

Objective: (i) To analyze the eating behaviors and body satisfaction of boys and girls and to examine their mothers’ perceptions of these two domains; and (ii) to evaluate eating problem predictors using child body mass index (BMI), self-esteem, and body satisfaction as well as maternal BMI, eating problems, and satisfaction with their child’s body. The participants included 111 children (54.1% girls aged between 9 and 12 years old) and their mothers. Assessment measures included the Child Eating Attitude Test, the Self-Perception Profile for Children, the Eating Disorders Questionnaire, and the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Child and maternal measures also included BMI and Collins Figure Drawings. Results: (i) No association between child and maternal BMI for either sex was found; (ii) no difference was found between boys and girls with regard to eating behavior; (iii) most children revealed a preference for an ideal body image over their actual body image; (iv) most mothers preferred thinner bodies for their children; (v) greater BMI was related to higher body dissatisfaction; and (vi) child BMI and dissatisfaction with body image predicted eating disturbances in boys, whereas self-esteem, maternal BMI, and eating behavior predicted them in girls. Discussion: Maternal eating problems and BMI were related to female eating problems only.     

All cravings are not created equal. Correlates of menstrual versus non-cyclic chocolate craving

Chocolate cravings occur regularly in about 45% of American women. Approximately half of these women link their craving temporally to the menstrual cycle, with a significant proportion of cravings reportedly peaking around ovulation or the onset of menstruation. This study aimed to elucidate the correlates of menstrual craving versus non-cyclic craving. Questionnaires assessing the relationships between craving, eating behaviors, attitudes towards weight and shape, and general pathology were completed by 97 women. Menstrual craving was reported by 28.9% (n = 28) and was associated with potentially maladaptive weight- and eating-related behaviors and attitudes, including higher body mass index, elevated dietary restraint, less flexible control over intake, and more guilt associated with the consumption of chocolate. Findings point to potential mechanisms involved in the etiology of menstrual cravings, such as the view of craving as a response to abstinence from high-calorie foods in an attempt to manage cyclically occurring weight fluctuations.     

Sociocultural influences on eating attitudes and behaviors,body image,and psychological functioning: A comparison of African-American,Asian-American,and Caucasian college women

Eating attitudes and behaviors, body image, and psychological functioning were evaluated in 98 female college students: 36 African-Americans, 34 Asian-Americans, and 28 Caucasians. African-Americans had significantly higher body mass index than either Asian-American or Caucasians. In contrast, Caucasians reported greater levels of disordered eating and dieting behaviors and attitudes and greater body dissatisfaction than did Asian-Americans and African-Americans who differed little on these measures. The nature of variability in these eating behaviors and attitudes and body image was also examined within each of the three groups. A generally consistent pattern emerged within each racial group: low self-esteem and high public self-consciousness were associated with greater levels of problematic eating behaviors and attitudes and body dissatisfaction. A history of being teased about weight and size was associated with problematic eating behaviors and attitudes and body dissatisfaction in African-Americans and Caucasians but not in Asian-Americans. The findings suggest that there exist important racial differences on various aspects of eating, dieting, and body image in college women. Contrary to hypothesis, the degree of acculturation and assimilation within the African-American and Asian-American groups was unrelated to variability in these domains. © 1995 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Body image, dieting and disordered eating and activity practices among teacher trainees: implications for school-based health education and obesity prevention programs

The aim was to investigate and compare body image, body dissatisfaction, dieting, disordered eating, exercise and eating disorders among trainee health education/physical education (H&PE) and non-H&PE teachers. Participants were 502 trainee teachers randomly selected from class groups at three Australian universities who completed the questionnaire. H&PE males and females had significantly poorer body image and higher levels of body dissatisfaction, dieting and disordered eating behaviors than non-H&PE participants. H&PE teachers were more likely to over-exercise and have exercise disorders, but very few self-identified problems with objectively assessed excessive exercise behaviors. Lifetime prevalence of eating disorders was 12.5% in H&PE males, 0% in non-H&PE males, 7.7% in H&PE females and 6% in non-H&PE females. Few participants had received any past or current treatment. Of particular concern is the likelihood of the teachers' inappropriate and dangerous attitudes and behaviors being intentionally or unintentionally conveyed to their school students. Those planning school health education, nutrition education and school-based obesity prevention programs should provide suitable training for the teachers involved. Screening and treatment services among teachers may also be helpful in order to detect, treat and educate young teachers about body image, dieting, disordered eating and physical activity practices.