Pectoralis major transfer for the treatment of irreparable anterosuperior rotator cuff tears

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the outcome of subcoracoid pectoralis major transfer for the treatment of irreparable anterosuperior rotator cuff tears. This type of tear involves complete rupture of the subscapularis in combination with either the supraspinatus alone or the supraspinatus and infraspinatus. These ruptures are characterised by a poor quality of the rotator cuff that does not allow for a direct tendon-to-bone reconstruction. Between 2000 and 2006, 15 patients were treated using a deltopectoral approach and transfer of the clavicular part of the pectoralis major to the lesser tuberosity and to the anterior part of the greater tuberosity. After an average follow-up (follow-up rate 100%) of 37 months the average functional rating using the Constant and Murley score (CS) increased from 51.73 ± 16.18 to 68.17 ± 8.84 points (p = 0.005). The mean subcategories of the Constant score for pain (p = 0.005), activities of daily living (p = 0.008) but not for range of motion (p = 0.9), significantly improved. At follow-up 13 patients (87%) were available for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the shoulder. Nine patients (70%) had an intact transferred pectoralis major muscle, two (15%) had one that was thin but intact and two patients a rupture (one complete). Two patients had postoperative haematoma and one patient developed cuff tear arthropathy. The good results confirm that pectoralis major transfer is a reliable treatment option for irreparable anterosuperior rotator cuff injuries with significant improvement in pain and function.     

肩袖部分撕裂的诊断和治疗

目的探讨肩袖部分撕裂的诊断和手术方法。方法1999年4月~2004年1月,我所对14例肩袖部分撕裂进行手术治疗。术前均拍摄肩关节正位和冈上肌出口位X线片,11例B超检查,14例MR I或MRA检查。5例行肩峰下间隙减压及肩袖清理术;9例行肩峰下间隙减压及肩袖修复术。采用UCLA肩关节评分标准进行评价。结果滑囊侧部分撕裂7例,关节侧部分撕裂7例。14例随访1~6年,平均38个月,UCLA评分由术前(15.9±3.9)分升至术后(30.9±5.2)分(t=15.000,P=0.000)。良13例,差1例;13例满意。结论关节镜检查是诊断肩袖部分撕裂的可靠方法。肩袖修复术是治疗肩袖部分撕裂的有效方法。关节镜下手术创伤小、恢复快。     

Diagnosis and treatment of incomplete rotator cuff tears

The histopathologic changes leading to rotator cuff rupture are gradual and progressive. Incomplete tears can be observed in the articular or bursal surface. These partial lesions are infrequently demonstrated with arthrography or bursography. Although structural variations in cuff integrity can be demonstrated with ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging, precise definition of partial tears is difficult. The exact location and extent of incomplete tears can be documented with shoulder arthroscopy. Anterior acromioplasty, either open or arthroscopic, is indicated for the treatment of chronic mechanical impingement refractory to conservative management. When a sizable partial defect is identified at open surgery, the degenerated tissue is excised and the tendon is reattached to bone or repaired with side-to-side suture. Arthroscopic treatment consists of debridement of the torn cuff margins, followed by arthroscopic subacromial decompression (ASD). When the incomplete tear in an active individual involves more than one-half the cuff thickness, arthroscopic and open techniques can be combined. Twenty partial-thickness tears were encountered among 130 patients who had ASD for chronic impingement. Fifteen had a satisfactory result, but five required additional surgery. A system of grading partial-thickness tears based on location, depth, and area is presented in an effort to standardize the observations of various investigators and to permit comparison of the results of arthroscopic treatment.     

Diagnosis, classification and treatment of partial-thickness rotator cuff tears

Partial-thickness rotator cuff tears are a challenge for shoulder surgeons. There is still no standard treatment protocol. The recent introduction of new arthroscopic techniques and a better grasp of pathogenic mechanisms along with a greater functional demand from patients, have led to the need for a thorough analysis of the problem. This paper analyses the literature in order to simplify the approach to treating partial-thickness rotator cuff tears.     

Arthroscopic repair of anterosuperior (supraspinatus/subscapularis) rotator cuff tears

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the outcome of patients who underwent arthroscopic repair of anterosuperior rotator cuff tears. The null hypothesis, that there was no difference between preoperative scores and postoperative scores, was tested statistically. Type of Study: A cohort study. Methods: The preoperative and postoperative status of patients with anterosuperior rotator cuff tears was analyzed using the Constant score, American Shoulder and Elbow Society Index (ASES Index), a visual analog pain scale (VAS), a single question of percent function compared with the opposite unaffected extremity, and a single question reflecting satisfaction, “would you undergo the surgery and the postoperative rehabilitation to achieve the result you have today.” There were also 2 groups compared: 1 that had a “tac” used for repair of the subscapularis tendon, and the other that used a “tie” technique for subscapularis repair. All supraspinatus tendon tears were complete and were repaired using a soft-tissue fixation device. Results: There was a statistically significant difference for all outcome measures except for the objective Constant score of the tie group, P = .58. Follow-up was 2 to 4 years. There were no differences based on sex or type of fixation device used for repair of the subscapularis tendon. There were no reruptures, clinically. Conclusions: The arthroscopic repair of anterosuperior rotator cuff tears provides reliable expectation for improvement in function, decreases in pain, decreases in clinical findings of biceps subluxation and inflammation, improvement in shoulder scores, and the improvement of clinical findings of subscapularis insufficiency.     

Nonoperative treatment of rotator cuff tears

Rotator cuff tears and subacromial impingement are second only to acromioclavicular joint disorders as the most common causes of shoulder pain. Although most orthopedic surgeons are willing to initially treat shoulder impingement syndrome conservatively, they are reluctant to manage rotator cuff tears-especially full-thickness tears-nonoperatively. The purpose of this article is to explain the biomechanical rationale of nonoperative treatment, review the literature pertaining to nonoperative treatment of full-thickness rotator cuff tears, and describe a nonoperative treatment program.     

肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂的诊断

目的 探讨肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂的临床特点和诊断方法.方法 1999年8月至2006年6月,对38例肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂患者进行手术治疗.男28例,女10例;年龄18～69岁,平均45.7岁.左肩11例,右肩27例.肩袖撕裂程度根据Ellman分类标准,Ⅰ度6例,Ⅱ度7例,Ⅲ度25例.术前对双侧肩关节进行系统检查.38例患者术前均拍摄肩关节正位和冈上肌出口位X线片,27例行B超检查,35例行MR或MRA检查.13例行肩峰下间隙减压及肩袖清理术,25例行肩峰下间隙减压及肩袖修复术.结果 38例患者均有肩部疼痛,夜间痛18例.夜间痛在Ⅰ、Ⅱ度与Ⅲ度撕裂患者间阳性率差异无统计学意义(P=0.095).25例患者肩关节前屈及外展肌力下降.物理检查中阳性率较高的包括:Neer撞击征92.1%(35/38),Hawkins撞击征71.1%(27/38),肱骨大结节压痛89.5%(34/38),60°～120°痛弧征68.4%(26/38),牵拉抗阻试验68.4%(26/38).根据Bigliani肩峰分型标准:Ⅰ型2例,Ⅱ型26例,Ⅲ型10例.B超检查的阳性检出率为48.1%(13/27),MR检查的阳性检出率为74.3%(26/35).结论 肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂患者中,Neer撞击征及大结节压痛阳性率很高.B超和MR检查诊断肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂有一定价值.关节镜检查仍然是诊断肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂的最可靠方法.     

Arthroscopic treatment of massive rotator cuff tears

In the past 10 years, arthroscopic surgeons have gone from being unable to repair any rotator cuff tears arthroscopically to being able to repair virtually all rotator cuff tears, even complex massive tears, arthroscopically. The factors responsible for this rapid evolution have been: (1) recognition of the mechanical principles responsible for a secure repair (margin convergence, knot security, loop security); (2) recognition of major tear patterns that require different techniques of repair; and (3) development of instrumentation and arthroscopic portals that predictably accomplish secure repair of the rotator cuff and direct access to the pathologic areas. In the current study, the author analyzes each factor, anatomic and mechanical, that influences the quality of the repair, and explains how to optimize the overall repair by optimizing each step in the repair. In the author's series of arthroscopic repair of rotator cuff tears, the results have been gratifying, with massive tears achieving final results equivalent to those of smaller tears.     

All arthroscopic treatment of rotator cuff tears

Although shoulder arthroscopy was initially performed solely for subacromial decompression, at present it is widely used for rotator cuff repairs and reconstruction. All arthroscopic rotator cuff repairs have been performed increasingly over the past decade and favorable long-term results have been reported in the literature. All arthroscopic rotator cuff repair has advantages over mini-open, or open rotator cuff repair, because it is associated with less postoperative pain and morbidity, and a more rapid improvement in shoulder motion. However, complete arthroscopic rotator cuff repair is a technically difficult procedure, with some limitations including relative weakness of tendon sutures and the need for more experience. It is essential that the merits and demerits associated with this technique should be balanced depending on the individual condition of the patient and the degree of experience gained. This article revisits all arthroscopic rotator cuff repair with regard to advantages and disadvantages, surgical techniques, indications, postoperative rehabilitation, and the results both in the light of the literature and our experience.     

巨大肩袖撕裂治疗现状

巨大肩袖撕裂是目前骨科疾病难点之一,对于其最佳治疗方式目前仍缺乏统一认识。治疗方式主要有药物治疗、物理治疗、康复治疗以及手术治疗等。对于可修复性巨大肩袖撕裂可尝试通过开放手术、关节镜辅助小切口治疗或全关节镜治疗,对于不可修复性撕裂可通过部分修复、肌腱移位、重建上方关节囊、补片增强、关节置换甚至关节融合等方式进行治疗。随着对肩袖撕裂的病因、损伤机制以及肩关节解剖力学等理解的逐步深入,同时得益于肩关节镜手术技术和关节镜器械的飞速发展,开发利用成体干细胞、富血小板血浆、新型修复补片材料等以降低手术失败率、术后再撕裂率以及关节僵硬等并发症,逐渐成为了目前研究的热点和重点。本文旨在对巨大肩袖撕裂治疗现状和最新研究进展进行综述,并探讨未来治疗研究趋势。     

Conservative treatment of rotator cuff tears.

Among 124 shoulders in 114 patients with complete rotator cuff tears who had been treated conservatively from 1980 until 1989, 62 shoulders in 54 patients were observed to identify the findings on initial examinations and correlate them with the final results. The follow-up period averaged 3.4 years. According to modified criteria of Wolfgang, 51 shoulders in 45 patients (82%) rates satisfactory (excellent or good). The overall scores of pain, motion, and function improved significantly. The results were less satisfactory in patients observed more than six years. The patients with satisfactory results (Group 1) and unsatisfactory results (Group 2) among those observed more than five years were compared. In Group 1, the scores of pain, motion, and strength improved significantly at follow-up examinations, whereas those of function did not. In Group 2, no improvement was recognized in any categories. The only significant differences in the initial findings between the two groups were the active abduction angle and the abduction strength: the patients in Group 1 retained a good range of motion and strength, whereas those with unsatisfactory results had a limited range and muscle weakness on first examinations. Conservative treatment affords satisfactory results when it is given to the patients with well-preserved motion and strength, although in some cases function may deteriorate with time.     

Partial-thickness rotator cuff tears

Partial-thickness rotator cuff tears are not a single entity; rather, they represent a spectrum of disease states. Although often asymptomatic, they can be significantly disabling. Overhead throwing athletes with partial-thickness rotator cuff tears differ with respect to etiology, goals, and treatment from older, nonathlete patients with degenerative tears. Pathogenesis of degenerative partial-thickness tears is multifactorial, with evidence of intrinsic and extrinsic factors playing key roles. Diagnosis of partial-thickness rotator cuff tears should be based on the patient's symptoms together with magnetic resonance imaging studies. Conservative treatment is successful in most patients. Surgery generally is considered for patients with symptoms of sufficient duration and intensity. The role of acromioplasty has not been clearly delineated, but it should be considered when there is evidence of extrinsic causation for the partial-thickness rotator cuff tear.     

Combined subcoracoid and subacromial impingement in association with anterosuperior rotator cuff tears: an arthroscopic approach

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the surgical outcome of patients with combined subcoracoid and subacromial impingement with associated rotator cuff tears. Type of Study: Case series. Methods: Eight patients with a mean age of 63.6 (± 8.9) years were reviewed. All patients had combined subscapularis, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus tears of the rotator cuff with associated subacromial and subcoracoid impingement. All patients were treated with arthroscopic subacromial decompression, subcoracoid decompression, and rotator cuff repair. Results: At a mean follow-up of 8.8 months (range, 6–12 months), all patients were satisfied with the procedure. The mean University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) score increased from 11.0 ± 2.6 preoperatively to 30.9 ± 2.9 postoperatively (P < .00001). Preoperatively, all patients were in the poor category by UCLA criteria. Postoperatively, 2 patients had excellent results, 5 patients had good results, and 1 patient had a fair result. All patients had significant reduction in pain postoperatively, with 4 patients showing complete elimination of pain during all activities. No patient complained of pain anteriorly over the coracoid or had positive impingement signs postoperatively. Active forward elevation increased from a mean of 103.1° ± 46.5° preoperatively to a mean of 155° ± 18.5° (P < .02). Preoperatively, 4 patients had no active overhead function with positive Napoleon tests. Postoperatively, all showed improvement of the Napoleon test and regained active overhead function. Conclusions: Arthroscopic treatment of combined subcoracoid and subacromial impingement can lead to good results in this patient population. A high index of suspicion for these combined lesions, along with adequate surgical decompression and rotator cuff repair, is essential in providing pain relief and improved function.     

肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂的关节镜手术治疗

目的 探讨关节镜治疗肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂的手术方法 和临床效果.方法 对2002年6月至2007年12月行关节镜手术的57例肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂患者进行回顾性分析.男性34例,女性15例,年龄25～71岁,平均年龄49.7岁.左肩15例,右肩34例,涉及优势侧41例.根据Ellman分类标准,Ⅰ度7例,Ⅱ度6例,Ⅲ度36例.术前均拍摄肩关节正位和冈上肌出口位X线片,29例行B超检查,36例行MRI或磁共振血管造影检查.Ⅰ度及Ⅱ度患者行肩峰下间隙减压及肩袖清理术;Ⅲ度患者行肩峰下间隙减压及肩袖修复术.肩袖修复方式:3例直接行断端缝合,26例应用缝合锚钉行肩袖止点重建,7例联合应用断端缝合及缝合锚钉技术.分别在术前和最终随访时采用UCLA肩关节评分标准进行评价.手术前UCLA评分平均为(16.5±2.4)分.其中疼痛评分平均为(2.9±1.0)分,功能评分平均为(5.4±1.2)分,肩关节主动前屈评分平均为(4.3±1.1)分,前屈肌力评分平均为(4.0±0.4)分.结果 49例患者均获得随访,随访时间2～7年,平均48个月.手术后平均UCLA评分为(32.1±3.8)分.其中疼痛评分平均为(8.4±1.7)分,功能评分平均为(9.1±1.4)分,肩关节主动前屈评分平均(4.9±0.2)分,前屈肌力评分平均为(4.8±0.4),与术前比较差异均具有统计学意义(均为P=0.000).优16例,良31例,差2例.47例患者对手术效果表示满意.结论 关节镜手术是治疗肩袖滑囊侧部分撕裂的有效方法 .手术创伤小、恢复快.     

Current concepts in treatment of rotator cuff tears

The expectation of a functional shoulder joint, even in advanced age, the growing experience and success in shoulder surgery have brought the operative treatment another step further. The goal of any advanced knowledge should be a proper treatment of the patients and the pathology. Complex rotator cuff tears can be repaired by means of muscle transfer and partial reconstruction. In cases of irreparable rotator cuff tear arthropathy prosthetic replacement of the gleno-humeral joint can be performed. In this article a review on the different techniques and indications for rotator cuff repair is given.     

Joint-preserving treatment options for irreparable rotator cuff tears

An irreparable cuff tear is defined as the inability to achieve direct repair of native tendon to the great tuberosity despite intra- and extra-articular release of the remaining tissue. Three distinct anatomic patterns are identified: posterosuperior cuff tears which involve the supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor; anterosuperior tears which involve the supraspinatus and subscapularis; and global tears which comprise both. Subacromial debridement and tenotomy or tenodesis of the long head of the biceps are proposed for older patients with a functional but very painful shoulder. Partial repair—particularly the infraspinatus and the subscapularis—is indicated for young patients if the muscle is still trophic with a fatty infiltration less than 3. It can be combined with a tendon transfer. In irreparable posterosuperior tears, latissimus dorsi or lower trapezius transfer has been reported to improve active elevation and external rotation. In anterosuperior cuff tears, pectoralis major or latissimus transfer has been used. If the lack of external rotation is isolated with good active forward elevation, the L’Episcopo procedure is the procedure of choice. New techniques with a short follow-up have been proposed recently: implantation of a balloon-shaped, biodegradable spacer in the subacromial space to maintain the position of the humeral head and to facilitate deltoid action; capsular superior reconstruction with a fascia lata or an artificial graft implanted between the superior glenoid rim and the great tuberosity to reproduce the natural capsule of the supra- and infraspinatus and to stabilize the humeral head.