Child culture, play and child development

The article discusses child development in the context of child life in day care. It traces children's development of an independent, autonomous life and their creation of culture where play is a central feature. The culture produced by the children is analysed on the basis of classical notions of culture. Furthermore the emergence and development of play in the life of the child is traced and the particular way of thinking represented in play is analysed: thinking related to creating drama with pretend figures on a “stage”. The potentials for learning inherent in this particular way of thinking are discussed with reference to the child's learning in the context of early instruction.     

Interaction process analysis of mothers with their newborn infants

The analysis of early interactions between the newborn infant and his mother has been conducted by putting an emphasis on their components, their rhythm and their development in time. Ten films, involving observation of eye to eye contact sequences with 42 mother-child couples, were analyzed. An analysis method has been adopted, in which a parallel between the child's communication behavior, essentially his visual activity, and the mother's communication behavior, is constantly drawn. 7 headings permit to analyze the mother's activities directed toward the child. The extreme variability of interaction patterns during the first week of life has been shown clearly. Specific contact modes seem to be favored by some mothers, while for others, all communication modalities are always present and are building on one another in true' “chain” interactions. The mother's role and the child's role have been commented upon, with particular emphasis on the activity of the child, who is capable, through his gaze, to initiate communication channels in the mother.     

The Contextuality of Children's Communication Difficulties in Specialist Practice: A Sociological Account

This paper reports findings from fieldwork in situations that brought young children and child welfare practitioners together with the aim of diagnosing and treating children's communication difficulties. The findings suggest that communication difficulties tend to be treated as a property of the individual child rather than as an emergent, contextual property of interaction. The attention will be steered from clinical definitions of “impairment” and “disability” to dynamics of social interaction, where understandings of “good” and “normal” communication play a central role. The findings have implications for current recommendations for good practice, which derive from needs-led, rights-led and skills-led approaches.     

Developing mathematical power: A case study

Current reform for mathematics education calls for the development of each child's “mathematical power” (NCTM, 1989, p.5), which we contend can be developed in very young children. From an ongoing case study of Jaclyn's early mathematics learning at home, we (i) share one child's early mathematical attitudes and strategies, and (ii) discuss how one mother's interactions with her daughter influence and guide “teacher-student” interactions. Bedtime story reading and everyday game-like activity are shown to be sources of natural mathematics, in this particular home, where the mother is aware of and acts to encourage the child's mathematical thinking. It is evident that mathematical power, problem solving, and sense making are strongly related for this preschooler. It is also evident that this parent's mediation -- informed by multiple perspectives of mother, classroom teacher and mathematics researcher -- plays an important part in such development.     

Children drawing: Are young children really scribbling?

Most research on children's drawing concerns itself with analyzing configural end products, whilst all that precedes them is dubbed “scribbling”, and has received scant attention. This paper, based on detailed longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, puts forward evidence which suggests that the child builds iconography on a substratum of symbolizations which are as much to do with movement and time as they are with configuration. The paper describes how the child experiments with 2D representation much earlier than has been commonly accepted, before and during the “scribbling stage”. Investigations made by the child at this time include those which monitor and represent the movement of imagined objects through space and time. Differing, interacting modes of representation are described, hitherto ignored by most investigators, which are mutually reciprocal in their contribution to the foundations of later iconography. More than this, these experiments aid the child in understanding the nature of the world.

The discussion is placed within a developmental context which starts from the child's early mark-making experience, where drawing defines basic axes and trajectories of body dynamism. From there, the emergence of different modes of representation leads to depictions of a topological nature. Transition from topological space to early (and rather startling) configural representation is described, as this is based on discoveries made by the child in the so-called “scribbling stage”. Implications for childcare and education are considered.     

Developmental awareness and moral stage development in child Abuse

In an attempt to better understand why children who have been sexually assaulted commonly fail to reveal their victimization to parents or other adults, a study was undertaken in which the “engagement strategies” of 41 perpetrators were examined, exploring common rationalizations, threats, etc. aimed at insuring continued silence on the part of the victim. The “appeal” for silence offered by the perpetrator to the child was analyzed according to Kohlberg's stages of moral development.

Results indicate that perpetrators appear to alter their engagement strategies to coincide with the developmental level of the child, thus further insuring silence by appealing to criteria for assessing “appropriate” or “inappropriate” behaviors (eg. sexual contact) which are developmentally consistent with the child's level of cognition and moral reasoning.     

Social skills and attitudes associated with substance use behaviors among young adolescents

Purpose: To examine how adolescents’ attitudes and social skills affect current substance use and intentions to use substances in the future.

Methods: An anonymous questionnaire was administered to 2646 seventh graders in their classrooms. The questionnaire was developed to measure the frequency of tobacco, alcohol, and other substance use, anticipated use, positive attitudes toward drug use, self-efficacy to say “no,” decision-making skills, advertising-viewing skills, anxiety-reducing skills, communication skills, drug-resistance skills, perception of peer substance use, and weapon-carrying behavior. Ethnicity classified respondents as “white” or “students of color” and family structure indicated one vs. two-parent families. Data were analyzed with Spearman’s r, analysis of variance, and multiple linear regression.

Results: Forty-one percent of students were minority, 50.6% female, over 90% were either 12- or 13-year-olds, and 69.9% lived in two-parent families. A multiple linear regression model demonstrated that self-efficacy to say “no, positive attitudes toward drug use, perception of peer substance use, male gender, weapon-carrying, and fighting accounted for 51% of the variation in the current use multiple substance scale. Anticipated substance use during the subsequent year was significantly associated with current substance use, positive attitudes toward drug use, self-efficacy to say ”no, drug-resistance skills, weapon-carrying, and fighting behavior. This model accounted for 73.9% of the variance in anticipated substance use.

Conclusions: In today’s world, where drug use is common, building adolescents’ drug-resistance skills and self-efficacy, while enhancing decision-making capacity, may reduce their use of illegal substances.     

The Correlation Between Children's Personal Behavioural Characteristics and Indicators of Children's Attachment to their Mother or Father, Respectively

The paper analyzes the relationships between the quality of the child's attachment to her/his parents and the child's capacity of socializing, her/his productivity, behavioural problems, neurosis, anxiety and self-evaluation. A study involving teachers and parents of 90 preschool children was carried out. Questionnaire on the behavioural responses of children (Horvat, 1986) was used which I expanded by adding postulates of the child's self-evaluation. To determine the quality of the child's attachment an evaluation scale was constructed, which I validated by means of observing the child's behavior toward the parents in kindergarten. The validity of two categories (e.g. “security” and “avoidance") was confirmed. The research indicated the existence of a positive relation between the child's attachment and the way the child adapts in general. The results failed to confirm only the hypotheses regarding the phenomenon of neurotic symptoms.     

-appraising nursery water play

Recent research on water play in nurseries provides a focus for re-examining this traditional nursery provision. Using “dynamic structures” of space, time and task activities as a framework, I examine research evidence in the context of the nursery traditions and my own practice and thereby identify factors which can support quality play and learning.     

Children's conceptions of their own play

This paper described a research project, Play and Learning, to investigate the mental processes that underlie children's activities in “free play” and “structured learning” situations in preschool. Interviews of children about “what they did” were used to investigate children's own views of play and learning.     

Family life: the place of children's work around the house

Cultural groups vary considerably in their expectations of work around the house by children, and these variations provide a window for viewing ideas about the nature of children and of family life. This paper provides (a) a summary of differences found between two cultural groups in Australia (Australian-born and Lebanese-born), (b) a review of differences found within historical studies and within other cross-cultural comparisons, and (c) a report on approaches and concepts to children's work within a further Australian-born group (a report that considers views about money for work as well as some general underlying principles about work that can legitimately be asked of others and work that cannot). The important differences among cultures, it is argued, have to do not only with the expectations of work, but also with the way parents mark some jobs as different from others (e.g. “regular” vs. “extra”, boys' work or girls' work, can be pased on vs. cannot be), and with the way they use, as a sign of whether a child is acquiring the desired concepts of family life, the child's understanding of phrases such as “your job” and the child's recognition of the mother's work.     

Change in women's perceptions of parental child rearing attitudes in Turkey: a three generation comparison

The change in women's perceptions of parental child rearing practices, attitudes, and beliefs across three consecutive generations within the context of social change in the Turkish society was investigated. The total sample consisted of 48 subjects; 16 representing each consecutive generation of “daughters”, their “mothers”, and “grandmothers” from the same family. Each generation represented the time periods that signify the relatively different periods of social change in the Turkish society. Each subject sorted 87 socialization relevant items on a seven point scale for both parents. Mean difference and correlational analysis across generations was made. Perceived child rearing practices, attitudes, and beliefs show significant differences across generations. The direction of change indicates a trend towards decreasing emphasis on authoritarian control and an increasing emphasis on encouraging independence, open expression, and expression of affect.     

Human capital development: A family objective

Human capital contributes to economic development just as does physical capital or natural resources. Human capital begins developing in the family. Human capital includes nutritional levels, life expectancy, skills, knowledge, abilities and attitudes. Human capital development contributes to the individual's future economic output. The generalization - “If you educate a mother you educate a family”; - is given supportive evidence from an analysis by T. Paul Schultz of research on measures which contribute to human capital. Schultz (1994) shows that “subsidizing schooling for females may be justified in terms of (1) efficiency (high individual private market returns); (2) social externalities (reduced child mortality and fertility; (3) intergenerational redistribution (better health and education of children and a slower growth in population; and (4) equity (an increase in the productive capability of poorer individuals relative to richer individuals.”

Thinking of human capital as an economic construct may prove useful for human service professionals because funding agencies may appreciate the objective, substantive, or measureable evidence that the concept presents when compared to more subjective evidence from the fields of education, human development, and family studies     

When, How and Why Child Caregivers Respond to Children's Behaviors

In a qualitative study, 42 child caregivers participated in one of six focus groups. They were asked to address three questions in open-ended discussion. “What child behaviors are of concern to you?”, “How do you respond to these behaviors?”, and “How do you make the decision about your response?” Responses were analyzed and categorized to examine when, how, and why caregivers discipline young children. Results showed that aggression, not listening, and sexually-related behaviors were most often mentioned by caregivers as behaviors of concern to them. The most frequently mentioned disciplinary strategies were time-out, explanation, and redirection. The question related to how caregivers make decisions about responding to misbehaviors was analyzed in terms of attributions made by caregivers about misbehaviors. The majority of caregivers indicated that their response was dependent of the circumstances. Most frequently mentioned attributions were about the children themselves, for instance, their age, gender, or state. Also mentioned were home and family, society, caregiver emotion, and the child care setting. Results also showed that caregivers with higher levels of early childhood education and more experience, and those working with smaller group sizes and smaller adult-to-chiid ratios provided more thoughtful answers that were more congruent with developmental appropriateness.     

Children: Rights, education and equal opportunity

The point of departure in this paper is the concept of RIGHTS. Whereas most countries accept that children have rights as is evidenced in the UNO Declaration of Rights of the Child (1959), such rights are statements, not laws. Statements advocating benefits, care, love, education etc. are goals or beliefs. Few countries have legalised rights; consequently, children may be at risk. In countries where there is discrimination of some degree in respect of race, colour, sex, religion, national or social origin, financial standing in society, level of education and so on, the right to “rights” as stated in the UNO Declaration is further jeopardised. The implications for educational provision from early childhood and onwards in countries where “rights” are not entrenched in statutes or where child advocacy is not forceful enough for all people are examined in this paper. Consequently, the chances for equal opportunity in life are reduced in situations where the child did not receive the benefit of education. Such a child may not perish as he might as a result of being deprived of food, but “the deprivation and injustice, the degradation of an individual and the setting of his vital interests at naught would at least approach in gravity the act of allowing him to die for the want of food” (1981, Wringe). In this paper, the author argues for the Rights of the Child, particularly where discrimination and inequalities exist and where provision for early education has to contend with excessive population growth.     

A qualitative study of caregivers' attitudes about child care

Thirty-one caregivers and directors involved in various types of day care for young children were interviewed. Qualitative methods were used to assess their role identity constructs and attitudes toward parents and the child care profession. Caregivers thought of themselves as “mothers,” “grandmothers,” or “teachers.” These social role identities clustered with attitudes about parents and professional role (e.g., “mothers” tended to see parents as neglectful, while “teachers” felt parents failed to reinforce progress made in day care). The authors concluded that conflict over attachment issues contributed to problems between parents and caregivers.     

Curiosity-exploration-play-creativity: The early childhood mosaic

In early child care settings, creative play is often used as behavioral evidence of quality programs. Yet, a detailed consideration of behavior which eventually results in creative child play is often lacking in training programs. The authors present a model which stresses the importance of teacher support for four levels of the “early childhood mosaic” -- curiosity, exploration, play and creativity. Specific examples of child behaviors and appropriate teacher responses at each level are given.     

Education and young people in care

The Oxford Dictionary defines Education as the, “systematic instruction, development of character and mental powers”. To “Educate” is referred to as, “to train or to instruct intellectually”. Teachers and Tutors use education to pass on their own acquired knowledge, knowledge which will either be interesting or useful for those entering into the workplace. This article will look at the issues surrounding a young person in care and their education, it will also examine why other sections of society also tend to neglect their schooling. “Good practice” will also be highlighted and recommendations put forward for both discussion and implementation in the workplace.     

Children resolving conflict - lessons for adults

“And if (peer mediation) works in the playground, there's no reason why adults can't learn a lesson from what after all isn't just child's play”     

Child Abuse: Focus on a Team Approach for School Teachers and Counsellors

Although laws protecting children from abuse have become commonplace at least since the colonial era, the legal concept of “mandatory reporting” is relatively new in Africa. The author argues that child abuse refers to more than physical injuries—the term encompasses a compilation of significant events, that interact with the child's ongoing development to interrupt, alter, or impair her or his psychological development. This article provides a selective review of child abuse and emphasizes the need for standard procedures for referral, medical provisions, and legal reporting. Toward this end, issues of establishing the dimensions of child maltreatment were reviewed in order to understand the social and cultural nature of child abuse. Recommendations are offered for integrating critical issues for the present and future development of child abuse into practica training, legislation and scope of practice.