Role of Ca(2+) and vitamin D in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is defined as a progressive systemic skeletal disease characterised by low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue, with a consequent increase in bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture. The clinical relevance of osteoporosis derives from the fractures that it produces. More than one-third of the adult women will suffer one or more osteoporotic fractures in their lifetime. The lifetime risk in men is approximately one-half that in women. The decrease of the bone mineral density is the most important cause of risk fracture. Among other factors, Ca(2+) and vitamin D deficiencies are important risk factors for a decrease in bone mineral density, consequently inducing osteoporosis. The high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in healthy elderly people living mainly in southern European countries increase the risk of osteoporotic fractures in these populations above those anticipated for the general elderly population of the European community. In addition, the ageing of the European population will double the number of osteoporotic fractures over the next 50 years, unless adequate preventative measures are undertaken. The efficacy and safety of Ca(2+) and vitamin D supplements at preventing bone loss and reducing the risk of hip and other fractures have been assessed in different clinical trials, which are extensively discussed in this review.     

Diagnosis, screening, prevention, and treatment of osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is the most common bone disease in humans and affects both men and women. The clinical and public health implications of the disease are substantial because of the mortality, morbidity, and cost of medical care associated with osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporosis is diagnosed on the basis of a low-impact or fragility fracture or low bone mineral density, which was best assessed by central dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Both nonpharmacological therapy (calcium and vitamin D supplementation, weight-bearing exercise, and fall prevention) and pharmacological treatments (antiresorptive and anabolic agents) may be helpful in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Therefore, clinicians need to be vigilant in instituting primary prevention measures for those at high risk for osteoporosis and in instituting treatment for patients diagnosed as having the disease either by screening or a history of fracture. This article provides an overview of the diagnosis, screening, prevention, and treatment of osteoporosis.     

Radiologic bone assessment in the evaluation of osteoporosis

Osteoporosis affects nearly 28 million elderly Americans. Its major clinical manifestation is fragility fractures of the spine, hip, and distal radius. Low bone mass is the most important risk factor for a fragility fracture. In 1994, the World Health Organization defined osteoporosis on the basis of a bone mineral density that is 2.5 standard deviations below that in peak young normal persons. Three common imaging modalities used to assess bone strength are dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, quantitative computed tomography, and calcaneal ultrasonography. The first two modalities measure bone mineral density in both the lumbar spine and peripheral sites. It is thought that calcaneal ultrasonography measures bone architecture and density. Unlike the other studies, ultrasonography currently cannot be used for monitoring skeletal changes over time or evaluating response to therapy.     

Preventing osteoporotic fractures in older people

While fractures at the spine, wrist and hip are regarded as classical osteoporotic fractures, all fragility fractures in the elderly should be considered as osteoporotic once pathological fracture (e.g. metastatic disease) has been excluded. The assessment of fracture risk should take account of specific risk factors in addition to bone mineral density (BMD). The WHO has produced FRAX, a well validated tool that estimates the probability of a major osteoporotic fracture in the next 10 years. The algorithm is specifically designed for primary care. After age and prior fragility fracture, BMD is the next major determinant of fracture risk. Rather than scanning all individuals with a risk factor, measurements should be targeted to those whose probability of fracture lies close to the intervention threshold where knowledge of BMD will influence management. Individuals with a low trauma vertebral fracture or low BMD for age should be investigated for underlying causes of osteoporosis. Secondary causes account for up to 40% of cases of osteoporosis in women and 60% in men. The goal of osteoporosis management is to reduce the future risk of fracture. Lifestyle modification includes measures to reduce falls risk and bone loss such as exercise, adequate dietary calcium and avoidance of smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. All patients with an osteoporotic fracture and those at high risk should be assessed for falls risk. Combined therapy, with calcium and vitamin D, has been shown to reduce hip fracture risk in the frail elderly and should be considered in all older patients who are housebound or in residential care. Alendronate and risedronate are available as once-weekly preparations with evidence for significant reductions in vertebral and non-vertebral fractures. Denosumab is approved for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at increased risk of fractures. Strontium ranelate has been shown to reduce fracture risk significantly in postmenopausal women.     

Osteoporosis diagnosis and screening

Osteoporosis and osteoporotic fracture are major causes of morbidity and mortality in the United States and worldwide. Nearly half of all women and one quarter of men >50 years of age will experience an osteoporosis-related fracture during their lifetime. The diagnosis of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and older men can be made definitively by comparing bone mineral density (BMD) measurements from dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to mean peak bone mass in young adults. Efforts to increase access to DXA and improve the sensitivity and specificity of osteoporosis risk assessment instruments may help ensure that individuals with osteoporosis are diagnosed early. The early identification of individuals with low BMD and/or clinical risk factors, accurate diagnosis of osteoporosis and osteopenia, and initiation of appropriate treatment are crucial to reducing the incidence of vertebral and nonvertebral fractures. The World Health Organization is moving toward absolute risk assessment and this may help to better identify patients for screening and treatment in the future.     

老年髋部骨折后对侧髋部的再骨折

背景:老年髋部骨折后发生对侧髋部再骨折数目在逐年增加。目的:阐述老年髋部骨折后对侧髋部再骨折的临床特征,提高对再次对侧髋部骨折的认识。方法:于2001-01/2011-07对老年单侧髋部骨折患者567例和老年再发对侧髋部骨折患者30例,分析再发对侧骨折病例的发生率、骨折类型、年龄、性别、骨密度、骨质疏松、再骨折时间间隔和合并症。结果与结论:单侧髋部骨折与再发对侧髋部骨折患者年龄、性别比例和骨密度值接近。老年髋部骨折患者中,对侧髋部再骨折发生率为5.0%。转子间骨折再发对侧髋部骨折率高于股骨颈骨折再发对侧髋部骨折率(P=0.018)。再发对侧骨折组骨质疏松发生率高于单侧骨折组(P=0.032)。初次骨折后发生对侧骨折的间隔时间平均2.4年,其中1年发生的最多,占40.1%。提示老年髋部骨折患者对侧髋部再骨折发生率较高,对于伴有骨质疏松和合并症的转子间骨折患者在术后1年内应加强预防,防止对侧髋部骨折的再次发生。     

Management of male osteoporosis: report of the UK Consensus Group

Although osteoporosis is generally regarded as a disease of women, up to 30% of hip fractures and 20% of vertebral fractures occur in men. Risk factors for osteoporotic fractures in men include low body mass index, smoking, high alcohol consumption, corticosteroid therapy, physical inactivity, diseases that predispose to low bone mass, and conditions increasing the risk of falls. The key drugs and diseases that definitely produce a decrease in bone mineral density (BMD) and/or an increase in fracture rate in men are long-term corticosteroid use, hypogonadism, alcoholism and transplantation. Age-related bone loss may be a result of declining renal function, vitamin D deficiency, increased parathyroid hormone levels, low serum testosterone levels, low calcium intake and absorption. Osteoporosis can be diagnosed on the basis of radiological assessments of bone mass, or clinically when it becomes symptomatic. Various biochemical markers have been related to bone loss in healthy and osteoporotic men. Their use as diagnostic tools, however, needs further investigation. A practical approach would be to consider a bone density more than one SD below the age-matched mean value (Z < -1) as an indication for therapy. The treatment options for men with osteoporosis include agents to influence bone resorption or formation and specific therapy for any underlying pathological condition. Testosterone treatment increases BMD in hypogonadal men, and is most effective in those whose epiphyses have not closed completely. Bisphosphonates are the treatment of choice in idiopathic osteoporosis, with sodium fluoride and anabolic steroids to be used as alternatives.      

Pharmacologic prevention of osteoporotic fractures

Osteoporosis is characterized by low bone mineral density and a deterioration in the microarchitecture of bone that increases its susceptibility to fracture. The World Health Organization defines osteoporosis as a bone mineral density that is 2.5 standard deviations or more below the reference mean for healthy, young white women. The prevalence of osteoporosis in black women is one half that in white and Hispanic women. In white women 50 years and older, the risk of osteoporotic fracture is nearly 40 percent over their remaining lifetime. Of the drugs that have been approved for the prevention or treatment of osteoporosis, the bisphosphonates (risedronate and alendronate) are most effective in reducing the risk of vertebral and nonvertebral fractures. Risedronate has been shown to reduce fracture risk within one year in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis and in patients with glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Hormone therapy reduces fracture risk, but the benefits may not outweigh the reported risks. Teriparatide, a recombinant human parathyroid hormone, reduces the risk of new fractures and is indicated for use in patients with severe osteoporosis. Raloxifene has been shown to lower the incidence of vertebral fractures in women with osteoporosis. Salmon calcitonin is reserved for use in patients who cannot tolerate bisphosphonates or hormone therapy.     

Osteoporosis: a national public health priority.

Osteoporosis, the most common bone disease, is a silent condition that affects millions of Americans. Fractures in individuals over the age of 50 can be the first sign of weak bones from osteoporosis. Many osteoporotic fractures can be prevented and treated. Healthy lifestyle choices such as proper diet, exercise, and medications can help prevent further bone loss and reduce the risk of fractures. Perianesthesia nurses have numerous opportunities to promote healthy behaviors for patients, family members, and themselves.     

Exercise and osteoporosis

Bone formation and resorption are ongoing phenomena. When bone resorption equals bone formation, bone mass remains stable. When resorption exceeds formation, bone mass is reduced--a process that leads to osteopenia or osteoporosis. Osteopenia is reduced bone mass and osteoporosis is reduced bone mass with resultant fractures. Reduced bone mass may be postmenopausal or related to ovarian failure (type I osteoporosis), it may be age-related (type II osteoporosis), or it may result from several other etiologic factors (secondary osteoporosis). Disuse and inactivity can cause bone loss, whereas weight-bearing exercises may maintain or improve bone mineral density. There is a significant correlation between muscle strength and bone mineral density. There is evidence that strengthening exercises may lead to an increase in the mineral density of the bones to which the muscles are attached. Currently, drug regimens are available to decrease or halt bone loss in osteoporotic patients. Properly designed exercise programs may prove to be effective for retarding age-related bone loss. In patients with osteoporosis, the cause should be investigated before treatment is commenced.     

骨质疏松性骨折愈合中骨改建的动态参数及骨密度变化

背景：当骨质疏松骨强度下降时,遭受轻微创伤或其他各种风险因素均易发生骨折。目的：观察骨质疏松性骨折愈合过程中骨小梁组织学变化,骨密度及骨矿化沉积率的改变。方法：SD大鼠随机分为骨质疏松组与对照组,骨质疏松组大鼠切除双侧卵巢,术后3个月,建立骨折模型。骨折后4,8,12,16周,荧光显微镜下观察骨改建的动态参数,双能X线骨密度仪下测定骨痂组织的骨密度;骨折后1,2,4,6,8,12,16周,应用自动图像系统测量骨组织形态。结果与结论：骨质疏松组大鼠成熟小梁骨占骨痂面积比对照组小,且小梁骨厚度变薄、小梁骨间距较宽,骨质疏松组骨小梁表面荧光标记百分比及骨痂组织骨密度低于对照组;而骨矿化沉积率高于后者对照组。说明在骨质疏松性骨折愈合过程中,骨痂组织的组织学的异常改变导致骨折愈合质量的降低。     

Osteoporosis in men

Osteoporosis in men is now recognized as an increasingly important public health issue. About 30 percent of hip fractures occur in men, and one in eight men older than 50 years will have an osteoporotic fracture. Because of their greater peak bone mass, men usually present with hip, vertebral body, or distal wrist fractures 10 years later than women. Hip fractures in men, however, result in a 31 percent mortality rate at one year after fracture versus a rate of 17 percent in women. Major risk factors for osteoporosis in men are glucocorticoid use for longer than six months, osteopenia seen on plain radiographs, a history of nontraumatic fracture, hypogonadism, and advancing age. Bisphosphonates and teriparatide (recombinant parathyhroid hormone) have recently been approved for use in men and should be considered along with supplemental calcium and vitamin D. Increased awareness by physicians of risk factors for male osteoporosis--and early diagnosis and treatment--are needed to decrease the morbidity and mortality resulting from osteoporotic fractures.     

Diagnosis of osteoporosis in clinical practice

Measurement of bone mineral density is the basis of the diagnosis of osteoporosis. The risk of fracture increases with decreasing bone mineral density, which can be measured using several different techniques. Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry is the most commonly used technique today. A further facility of the new bone densitometry technology is the option for vertebral morphometry. There are errors of accuracy in all bone densitometry techniques and also in the interpretation of the data they provide. Ultrasound of bone may provide new measures of bone fragility. Broadband ultrasound attenuation of the calcaneus predicts the risk of hip fracture in elderly women almost or equally as well as bone densitometry. Ultrasound does not expose to radiation and the equipment is portable. However, bone ultrasound cannot replace bone densitometry. Biochemical bone markers do not differentiate osteoporotic patients from healthy adults. However, they can be useful in deciding on interventions and in monitoring the efficacy of treatment. Their predictive value in individuals suffers from large variability. Biochemistry is widely used in the differential diagnosis of secondary osteoporosis. Suspicion of osteomalacia or an invasive process in the bone marrow are the most common indications for bone biopsy. Finally, although history and physical examination are insufficient in diagnosing primary osteoporosis, they are important in targeting other investigations to exclude secondary forms of osteoporosis.     

自然三联疗法对老年骨质疏松性骨折康复的影响

目的探讨自然三联疗法对老年骨质疏松性骨折康复的影响。方法将124例老年骨质疏松性骨折患者随机分为两组。针对促进骨质疏松情况的康复,两组均采用补充钙盐和降钙素治疗,对照组60例采用常规方法进行康复护理;观察组64例在此基础上采取营养、运动、日光浴自然三联疗法;于患者出院时、出院后6个月及出院后12个月测量患者骨密度情况。结果两组入院时椎体、髋部骨密度比较,差异无统计学意义(均P>0.05);治疗后6个月椎体、髋部骨密度比较,差异无统计学意义(均P>0.05);治疗后12个月椎体、髋部骨密度比较,差异有统计学意义(均P<0.05);结论自然三联疗法对老年骨质疏松性骨折的康复及治疗效果,有着十分积极的作用。     

Osteoporosis in men and women

Osteoporosis is a cause of significant morbidity and mortality in postmenopausal women as well as men. In both men and women, increasing age and low bone mineral density (BMD) are the 2 most important independent risk factors for an initial vertebral or nonvertebral fracture. Although the prevalence of osteoporosis is greater in women, mortality after fracture is higher among men. In both men and women, the incidence of vertebral fracture increases with age, although the increase is more marked in women than in men. The diagnostic criteria for postmenopausal osteoporosis in women are well established; however, there is ongoing debate about the appropriate T-scores and BMD thresholds to diagnose osteoporosis in men. Alendronate and risedronate are considered first-line therapy for the treatment of both postmenopausal osteoporosis and male osteoporosis. The efficacy and safety of these agents have been evaluated extensively in randomized clinical trials. Studies suggest that these agents are similarly efficacious in men and women. The anabolic agent teriparatide may also be used to treat men with osteoporosis at high risk for fracture. Studies suggest that treatment with an anabolic agent like teriparatide should be followed by an antiresorptive agent.     

Gastric Vagotomy in Peptic Ulcer

PREVIEW

Osteoporosis is considered a disorder of postmenopausal women because bone mineral loss and accompanying fragility fractures are common in this group. However, certain premenopausal women are also at risk for osteoporosis. Because of a lack of screening and treatment guidelines for premenopausal women, it can be difficult to determine whether a low bone mineral density correlates with a disease such as osteoporosis and to predict the potential risk of a fracture and formulate the correct course of action. In this article, Dr Derk identifies high-risk groups, presents an approach to judicious screening, and recommends prevention and treatment strategies.     

Guidelines for the diagnosis of osteoporosis by densitometric methods

BACKGROUND: Osteoporosis is a major health hazard for postmenopausal women and elderly people. Local, national, and international organizations developed clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis and the prevention of osteoporotic fractures. Low bone mineral density (BMD) is the most important risk factor for fragility fractures. Bone densitometry is the best method to measure BMD in an individual. Many risk factors contribute to the development of osteoporosis and increase the fracture risk independently from BMD. Guidelines must be comprehensive, factual, simple to implement, and should provide the clinician, patients, governments, and payers with the best evidence available. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this article were to review national and international guidelines to establish a congruent set of parameters that may aid the clinician in the decision-making process for the diagnosis of osteoporosis. DATA SOURCES: An online search of several databases provided 18 guidelines for this review. Comparison among the guidelines was made on 10 different aspects: format, focus, significance of hip and vertebral body fractures, primary diagnostic considerations, BMD measurement technology, interpretation, reporting and follow-up, equipment reliability and quality control, risk factors considered, and methodologic quality of the guidelines. Tables were created for easier comparison on the aspects covered and supported by each guideline. RESULTS: None of the guidelines reviewed fulfills all the requirements of good clinical practice guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: Further works should finally provide all those interested with a more complete and thorough set of guidelines based on the best evidence available.     

Dental panoramic radiography in the diagnosis of osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is common in the elderly and the dentist is often the only healthcare professional that they visit regularly. Since dental panoramic radiographs (DPRs) are widely used for routine examinations when planning treatment, this study evaluated whether the presence of osteoporosis might be apparent in a population of patients who underwent DPR. The mandibular cortical index (MCI) and a new method of measuring the mandibular radiographic density (m-RD), which used DPR that incorporated an aluminium step-wedge, were compared with the total vertebral bone mineral density (v-BMD) of the lumbar vertebrae measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in 25 osteoporotic women. Although there was only a weak correlation between m-RD and v-BMD, significant correlation was found between MCI and v-BMD. Since both m-RD and MCI were related to vBMD, dental radiographic density and MCI may be useful in clinical dental practice to identify osteoporotic women with previously undetected low BMD.     

A neuromuscular test battery for osteoporotic women: a pilot study

OBJECTIVE: To examine the efficacy of a short neuromuscular test battery in elderly women suffering from osteoporosis in accordance with the World Health Organization criteria, with and without a history of fractures. Reduced bone mass and a high likelihood of falling increase the risk of osteoporotic fractures. There is a need for neuromuscular tests to identify individuals at risk for falls and fractures. DESIGN: The women were assessed twice. Forty-two women, with a mean age of 70.0 +/- 5.1 (SD) yr, completed the first assessment. The number of postmenopausal fractures and the women's history with regard to agility and falls were assessed. The women performed neuromuscular tests (one-leg stance, tandem walk, and body sway); bone mineral density of the spine and femoral neck were measured. For the follow-up assessment, 13.2 +/- 1.3 mo later, 39 women were studied. The same outcome measurements were obtained at both evaluations. RESULTS: During the observation period, five women fell once and one woman fell twice; there were only two vertebral fractures and no nonvertebral fracture. Neuromuscular performance did not change during this observation period. The median changes in bone mineral density between the two assessments were clinically not relevant. A comparison between patients suffering from established osteoporosis and osteoporotic patients without a history of postmenopausal fractures showed that both groups of patients did not differ with respect to age, neuromuscular performance, bone mineral density, and fear of falling. CONCLUSION: This neuromuscular test battery is a feasible and practical tool because it is brief and economical to perform. However, its efficacy as a predictor of fractures must be tested in additional studies with a long-term follow-up and a larger group of subjects.     

Prevention of fractures in older people who fall

Despite assessment and appropriate interventions, some older people will continue to be at risk of falling. Fractures of the hip and wrist are especially common among this group. The risk of fracture means that a comprehensive falls prevention programme must include an assessment of the individual fracture risk and the instigation of appropriate treatment of bone fragility. Osteoporosis is the main cause of bone fragility in this client group and it is commonly associated with postmenopausal women, although other forms exist. Osteoporosis is also a problem for men as they get older and for individuals taking steroid medications. Community nurses need to be aware of how osteoporosis manifests itself as well as how this condition can be prevented and treated.