Needle sharing among southern Thai drug injectors

Aim To examine factors associated with needle sharing among injecting drug users (IDU) in southern Thailand. Design Using a cross‐sectional survey, 272 active IDU were interviewed about their socio‐economic background, needle sharing and drug use patterns at six drug‐treatment clinics in southern Thailand. Findings Ninety‐one per cent of IDU gave a past history of ever sharing injecting equipment: of these, 23% currently injected but did not share and 68% still shared. Only 5% of participants knew that bleaching needles could reduce HIV transmission risks. Recent needle sharing was correlated with number of IDU friends (OR 12.23; CI, 5.24–28.51), engaging in illegal jobs (OR 2.74; CI, 1.13–6.67), being unable to use new needles at all times (OR 2.89; CI, 1.17–7.14) and believing that cleaning contaminated shared needles with at least plain water could reduce HIV transmission (OR 3.32; CI, 1.16–6.68). Conclusions Our data suggest that AIDS prevention efforts should focus on approaches to reduce needle sharing. Needle exchange programs, HIV counseling and testing and bleach distribution may reduce levels of needle‐sharing risks.     

Ethnicity and risk factors in needle sharing among intravenous drug users in Sichuan Province, China

Combining survey and ethnographic data, this research examined differences in the risk factors associated with needle sharing amongst intravenous drug users (IDUs) in the Sichuan Province of China. A comparison was made between the province's majority Han population and its Yi minority. We developed a theoretical framework consisting of risk factors at the individual level (including risk factors such as lack of AIDS knowledge, low self-efficacy, and economic pressure), interpersonal level (having an IDU primary partner and lack of family support), and community level (social discrimination). The findings suggested that the Yi minority group was more socially disadvantaged and had a higher risk of contracting HIV than the Han group. Furthermore, the factors that put them at risk were different to those which affected the Han group. OLS regression results showed that, for Han IDUs, needle sharing was positively associated with having an IDU primary partner and with economic pressure. On the other hand, for the minority group, needle sharing was significantly associated with being male, AIDS knowledge, the lack of family support, and social discrimination. These findings highlight the need for HIV prevention work to target marginalized populations in China, such as ethnic minorities, and to tailor appropriate prevention strategies to meet the specific needs of different groups.     

Needle sharing and high-risk sexual behaviors among IV drug users in Southern Thailand

This study sought to determine the prevalence of needle sharing and high HIV risk sexual behaviors and to identify characteristics associated with these practices in southern Thailand. Data were obtained using a structured questionnaire from 298 male intravenous drug users (IVDUs) seen in a methadone clinic during the previous year. The prevalence of HIV was 37%, and that of needle-sharing in the preceding months was 45%, although only 10% claimed to have had unsafe sex with a casual partner or prostitute in the same period. Determinants for needle sharing included shorter duration of drug injection, diminished knowledge of HIV prevention, a carefree attitude toward risk of HIV infection, and lower levels of income. Young single IVDUs with a low knowledge of HIV prevention were most likely not to use a condom. In conclusion, needle sharing among the study subjects was still a common practice, whereas high HIV risk sexual behavior was not. Attitudinal change may be necessary to reduce needle-sharing behavior and not just information on disease transmission.     

Needle sharing: a longitudinal study of female injection drug users

The objective of this study was to examine the psychosocial risk and protective factors related to needle-sharing behavior among female intravenous drug users (IDUs) positive (N = 96) and negative (N = 128) for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Participants in this longitudinal study were interviewed individually at two points in time, with a 6-month interval between interviews. The interviewers used a structured questionnaire, which included psychosocial measures and questions about drug and sexual risk behaviors. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlations and hierarchical regression analyses. The findings supported a developmental model in which the psychosocial domains and HIV status predicted T1 (initial) needle-sharing behavior, which in turn was related to T2 (follow-up) needle-sharing behavior. In addition, the relationship between personality and peer risk factors and T2 needle sharing was buffered by family-related protective factors. While HIV-positive status had a direct effect on T1 needle sharing with strangers, its effect was mediated by all of the psychosocial variables in its relation to T1 needle sharing with familiar people. Comparisons of these results were made with a companion study of male IDUs. The results suggest several intervention and treatment approaches that can be implemented at different points in the developmental pathways leading to risky needle-sharing practices among female IDUs.     

广东省静脉吸毒人员共用针具影响因素的Logistic回归分析

目的探讨广东省静脉吸毒人员共用针具的影响因素,以及针具交换项目对预防吸毒人员共用针具的效果。方法采用社区干预研究的方法,选择各方面因素比较类似的两个镇,一个作为干预社区,一个为对照社区。干预区采用针具交换干预措施,对照区不采取任何干预措施,为期10个月。于干预前后分别采用滚雪球的方式抽取注射吸毒者进行断面调查,以评估共用针具的影响因素。影响因素的确定采用Logistic单因素分析,对有显著意义的变量进行多因素Logistic逐步回归分析。结果干预前后分别调查了428和429名静脉吸毒者。干预后干预组和对照组最近30天内共用针具率分别为20.4%和35.3%,差异有显著性（χ^2=11.83,P=0.001）。多因素Logistic逐步回归分析结果显示：知晓艾滋病知识（OR=0.62,95%CI：0.45～0.85）、20～30岁年龄组（OR=1.41,95%CI：1.04～1.91）、使用多种毒品（OR=2.21,95%CI：1.53～3.19）、注射吸毒的年限（OR=2.38,95%CI：1.43～3.99）、重复使用注射器（OR=2.94,95%CI：2.06～4.19）、一次买4支针以上（OR=0.53,95%CI：0.33～0.86）、买针不方便（OR=2.08,95%CI：1.38～3.12）及是否看过艾滋病宣传折页或宣传画（OR=0.59,95%CI：0.42～0.83）,是影响吸毒者共用针具的主要原因。结论针具交换项目有效地降低了静脉吸毒人员共用针具率,知晓艾滋病知识、针具交换项目的宣传及针具的可及性,是针具共用的预防因素;而青年人群、使用多种毒品及注射吸毒时间较长等,是共用针具的危险因素。因此今后的针具交换项目应该针对这些危险因素才能达到控制艾滋病在静脉吸毒人群中的传播。     

Needle sharing with known and diagnosed human immunodeficiency virus-infected injecting drug users

The annual number of reported cases of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection among injecting drug users (IDUs) in Sweden has been about 20 for more than 5 y, but in 2001 36 new cases were reported. Risk behaviour for contracting HIV infection was studied in 21 of 24 identified and evaluable IDUs with diagnosed HIV infection in the metropolitan area of Stockholm in 2001 and in 23 of 30 evaluable consecutive controls. HIV status was associated with general needle sharing (p = 0.04) and needle sharing with an HIV-positive individual (p = 0.0001), despite extensive information on possible transmission routes for HIV. These results indicate that efforts for reducing transmission of HIV should focus on HIV-negative and HIV-positive individuals with risk behaviour.     

云浮市监管场所内外吸毒人群HIV感染状况及其危险因素分析

目的分析广东省云浮市吸毒人群艾滋病病毒（HIV）的感染状况及相关的危险因素。方法在社区和戒毒所同时招募吸毒／戒毒人群,社区采用“同伴推动抽样（RDS）”方法,戒毒所选择2012年度首次入所者。经知情同意后,由统一培训的调查员在单独房间进行结构式问卷调查,问卷内容包括社会人口学特征、吸毒行为和性行为等信息。调查结束后抽取5mL静脉血检测HIV抗体。结果吸毒／戒毒人群的HIV抗体阳性率为3．8％（24／630）,其中戒毒所和社区吸毒人群的HIV抗体阳性率分别为1．3％（5／400）和8．3％（19／230）,差异有统计学意义（x2=19．59,P〈0．001）。多因素非条件Logisitc回归结果显示,研究对象来源为社区[比值比（OR）=4．56,95％可信区间（CI）：1．47～14．15）、共用针具（OR=8．53,95％CI：2．98～24．39）为HIV感染的独立危险因素,男性（OR=0．24,95％CI：0．07～0．81）为HIV感染的保护性因素。结论云浮市社区吸毒人群的HIV感染率明显高于戒毒所内的戒毒者,提示目前主要来自监管场所吸毒人群的哨点资料,不一定能代表当地的实际情况,应结合社区的监测结果做综合判断。同时,应根据该地区HIV感染的相关危险因素制定有针对性的干预措施。     

台州市吸毒人群HIV感染调查

目的 了解台州市吸毒人群中艾滋病病毒(HIV)感染状况，为采取干预措施提供依据。方法 对台州市戒毒所内l188名吸毒人员进行调查和血清HIV抗体检测。结果 吸毒者以无业的青年男性居多，静脉注射吸毒率34．72％。检出HIV感染者7例，HIV感染率0．59％。感染者均来自外省，均有静脉注射和共用注射嚣吸毒史。结论 台州市吸毒人群HIV感染率较低，要控制艾滋病在台州的传播蔓延，重点应放在对流动人口的管理干预上。     

Injecting equipment sharing and perception of HIV and hepatitis risk among injecting drug users in Budapest

In central European states, rates of HIV among injection drug users (IDUs) have been low although Hepatitis C (HCV) infection is widespread. The goal of our study was to assess HIV infection, risk perceptions and injecting equipment sharing among IDUs in Budapest, Hungary. Altogether 150 IDUs were interviewed (121 structured interviews between 1999 and 2000 and 29 ethnographic interviews between 2003 and 2004). The majority of them injected heroin (52% and 79%) and many injected amphetamines (51% and 35%). One person tested positive for HIV. Two thirds (68%) shared injecting equipment (syringes, cookers and filters). Some participants said they shared syringes because they were not carrying them for fear of police harassment and that they reused filters as a backup drug supply. In multivariate analysis, sharing of injecting equipment was associated with higher perceived susceptibility to HIV/AIDS, lower self-efficacy for sterile equipment use, higher motivation to comply with peer pressure to use dirty injecting equipment and with having a criminal record. The high levels of injecting risk-behaviors found in this study are a cause for serious concern. Interventions for HIV-prevention need to address not only sharing syringes but also sharing and reusing of other injecting equipment and drug filters.     

Mental health status, drug treatment use, and needle sharing among injection drug users.

This study examined the relationship among mental health symptoms, drug treatment use, and needle sharing in a sample of 507 injection drug users (IDUs). Mental health symptoms were measured through the ASI psychiatric scale. A logistic regression model identified that some of the ASI items were associated with needle sharing in an opposing direction. Specifically, anxiety was significantly and positively associated with needle sharing. Using psychotropic medication was significantly and negatively associated with sharing needles. Those who had higher levels of drug injecting were more likely to share needles and those with an HIV-positive status were less likely to share needles. Finally, IDUs who reported high levels of drug treatment use (in the 75th percentile in terms of number of treatment admissions) were also more likely to share needles. Results suggest that treating mental health problems in IDUs who are not drug free could reduce HIV risk behaviors. The results also suggest the need to develop new intervention methods for high-level drug treatment users who may be "cycling" through treatment with low levels of treatment completion.     

广东省静脉吸毒者吸毒行为和性行为特征研究

目的了解广东省艾滋病(AIDS)高危地区静脉吸毒者(IDUs)吸毒行为和性行为特征,为进一步的HIV/AIDS预防干预研究提供建议。方法于2002年8月至2004年3月,对200名戒毒所内的静脉吸毒者进行面对面问卷调查。结果200名IDUs年龄为20~29岁(53.0%),无业(42.5%),男性(83.5%),汉族(96.5%),初中及以下文化程度(86.5%)。入所前30天使用的主要毒品是海洛因(99.5%),54%的人有多药滥用。首次吸毒年龄平均为22.79±4.87岁。注射过程中各种共用行为比率为22.0%~33.5%,79.4%的人经常重复使用一支针具。29.2%的人有多性伴,与固定和临时性伴性交从不使用安全套的比率分别为67.3%、25.7%。30%的女性有过以性换钱和换毒品行为,29.2%的男性有花钱买性服务。结论广东省静脉吸毒者HIV感染相关危险行为普遍存在,包括直接和间接的针具共用行为及危险性行为。应进一步开展危险行为的形成与降低原因的研究,并针对特定的高危行为采取合理的预防干预措施。     

Association of higher-risk alcohol consumption with injecting paraphernalia sharing behaviours in intravenous drug users

Background: Alcohol use is common among injecting drug users. The coexistence of alcohol consumption and injecting risk behaviour has the potential to increase harms among intravenous drug users (IDUs). Objective: This study aimed to determine whether the level of alcohol use is a risk factor for injecting paraphernalia sharing behaviours. Methods: A total of 637 treatment-seeking IDUs were assessed for injecting paraphernalia sharing behaviours and drinking risk level as defined by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Multivariate analyses were performed to identify alcohol risk factors associated with injecting paraphernalia sharing behaviours. Results: After adjusting for the effects of ethnicity, employment and drug used, the odds ratio of higher risk drinking for injecting paraphernalia sharing behaviours was 1.92 (95% CI 1.31–2.83). Conclusion: Higher-risk drinking in IDUs is associated with higher rates of injecting paraphernalia sharing behaviours. It is important to take alcohol use into account when evaluating these patients for treatment and designing intervention strategies.     

High rates of drug use, but low rates of HIV risk behaviours among injecting drug users during incarceration in Dutch prisons

Aims. To determine levels of injecting drug use and sexual risk behaviours in injecting drug users during and immediately following imprisonment in The Netherlands. Design, setting and participants. Crosssectional survey of drug injectors attending methadone clinics, a sexually transmitted disease clinic and a central research site in Amsterdam. The mean age of the 188 participants was 35 years, 78% were male and 34% had HIV antibodies . Measurements. Self-reported drug use and sexual behaviours during the last period of imprisonment in Dutch prisons within the previous 3 years and injecting drug use in the week following release from prison . Findings. A period of imprisonment in the preceding 3 years was reported by 188 (41%) of 463 interviewed drug injectors. The mean duration of last imprisonment was 3.6 months. Any use of cannabis, heroin or cocaine during imprisonment was reported by 55%, 37% and 20%, respectively. Five injectors (3%) admitted to having injected in prison, but no sharing of needles and syringes was reported. Vaginal or anal sex was reported by two (1%) of the men and none of the women. Relapse to drug injecting during the week following release from prison was reported by 78/186 (42%) participants, in most cases (34%) at the very first day of release. Drug use behaviours during imprisonment were similar for those who were designated current injectors at the time of imprisonment and those who were not, but injecting in the first week following release from prison was far higher among 'current' injectors (63%) than among those who were not (11%) . Conclusions. Contrary to findings from other countries, low levels of HIV risk behaviours occur among imprisoned drug injectors in The Netherlands. Intra-prison HIV preventive measures should be considered taking into account the nationally, regionally or locally varying conditions within the existing prisons.     

High HIV risk among Uigur minority ethnic drug users in northwestern China

Objective To assess differences of HIV risk between ethnicities in northwestern China. Method Cross‐sectional serosurvey and structured questionnaire interview of 383 injection drug users of either Han or Uigur ethnicity in Urumqi, Xinjiang. Results Both Uigur minority ethnicity and residence in a Uigur or mixed Uigur/Han community were independently associated with higher HIV risk. Conclusion HIV prevention programs should give special focus on minority ethnic drug users and their communities.     

Flashblood: blood sharing among female injecting drug users in Tanzania

Aims This study examined the association between the blood‐sharing practice of ‘flashblood’ use and demographic factors, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status and variables associated with risky sex and drug behaviors among female injecting drug users. Flashblood is a syringe‐full of blood passed from someone who has just injected heroin to someone else who injects it in lieu of heroin. Design A cross‐sectional study. Setting Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Participants One hundred and sixty‐nine female injecting drug users (IDUs) were recruited using purposive sampling for hard‐to‐reach populations. Measurements The association between flashblood use, demographic and personal characteristics and risky sex and drug use variables was analyzed by t‐test and χ² test. The association between flashblood use and residential neighborhood was mapped. Findings Flashblood users were more likely to: be married (P = 0.05), have lived in the current housing situation for a shorter time (P < 0.000), have been forced as a child to have sex by a family member (P = 0.007), inject heroin more in the last 30 days (P = 0.005), smoke marijuana at an earlier age (P = 0.04), use contaminated rinse‐water (P < 0.03), pool money for drugs (P < 0.03) and share drugs (P = 0.000). Non‐flashblood users were more likely to live with their parents (P = 0.003). Neighborhood flashblood use was highest near downtown and in the next two adjoining suburbs and lowest in the most distant suburbs. Conclusions These data indicate that more vulnerable women who are heavy users and living in shorter‐term housing are injecting flashblood. The practice of flashblood appears to be spreading from the inner city to the suburbs.     

Illicit drug initiation among institutionalized drug users in China

Aims To examine the circumstances and correlates associated with initiation of illicit drug use among institutionalized drug users in China. Design Cross‐sectional, retrospective study. Settings Six compulsory drug cessation programs in Yunnan Province and Gunagxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of China. Participants A gender‐stratified random sample of 833 drug users (88% males and 12% females) enrolled in compulsory drug cessation programs in November 1996. Measurements Circumstances of illicit drug initiation (age, type of drugs, routes of drug administration, social setting, source of drugs, reasons for drug use), the risk behaviors and risk perceptions prior to drug initiation. Findings The majority of participants initiated drug use with heroin (90%). Initial drugs were frequently administered through sniffing/snorting (55%) and smoking cigarettes mixed with a drug (38%). First drug use occurred most commonly at a friend’s home (65%) and in the company of other drug users (83%). Drugs were generally provided free for first‐time use by other drug users (72%). Reasons for first drug use included experimentation (90%), being lured into drugs by other people (44%) and relaxation (42%). Most drug users had a history of regular cigarette smoking (89%), alcohol consumption (49%) and deviant behaviors (51%) prior to their drug initiation. The majority perceived that their friends (90%) and neighbors (88%) used illicit drugs. Conclusions The findings are similar to studies in western countries with respect to the pattern and correlates of illicit drug initiation, and underscore the need for drug prevention efforts in China.     

Correlates of receptive and distributive needle sharing among injection drug users in Kabul, Afghanistan

We describe receptive and distributive needle/syringe sharing among injection drug users (IDUs) in Kabul, Afghanistan. In this cross-sectional study, IDUs completed an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Logistic regression identified correlates of needle sharing in the last six months. Receptive and distributive sharing in the last six months were reported by 28.2% and 28.7% of participants, respectively, and were both independently associated with reported difficulty obtaining new syringes (Receptive sharing: AOR = 2.60, 95% CI: 1.66-4.06; Distributive: AOR = 1.56, 95% CI: 1.02-2.39). Receptive and distributive sharing are common among IDU in Kabul; scaling up availability of sterile, no-cost injecting equipment is urgently needed.     

HIV risk behavior among injection drug users in Tehran, Iran

AIMS: Iran faces parallel human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and injection drug use epidemics; more than 62% of known HIV cases occur among injection drug users (IDU). We conducted a formative study of IDU in Tehran to explore risk behavior in the wake of the recent harm reduction efforts. PARTICIPANTS AND DESIGN: Key informant interviews (n = 40), focus group discussions (nine groups of IDU, n = 66) and a review of existing published and unpublished literature were conducted. Participants included IDU, physicians, policy makers, police, IDU advocates and their families. IDU were diverse in gender, education, income and neighborhood of residence. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using grounded theory. A typology of IDUs in Tehran, categorized according to self-defined networks as well as HIV risks, is presented. This categorization is based on the groups identified by IDUs, compared to those identified by other key informants, and on a secondary data review. FINDINGS: Homeless, female, young IDU and users of a more potent form of heroin were identified as having increased risks for HIV. Participants described shortening transitions from smoked opium to injected opiates. Whereas a majority of participants considered needle sharing less common than previously, sharing continues in locations of group injection, and in states of withdrawal or severe addiction. System-wise barriers to harm reduction were discussed, and include the cost or stigma of purchasing needles from pharmacies, over-burdened clinics, irregular enforcement of laws protecting IDU and lack of efforts to address the sexual risks of IDU. CONCLUSIONS: This research is one of the first to describe a diversity of IDU, including women and higher socio-economic class individuals, in Tehran. While efforts in harm reduction in Iran to date have been notable, ongoing risks point to an urgent need for targeted, culturally acceptable interventions.