Volumetric-modulated arc radiotherapy for pancreatic malignancies: Dosimetric comparison with sliding-window intensity-modulated radiotherapy and 3-dimensional conformal radiotherapy

Volumetric-modulated arc radiotherapy (VMAT) is an iteration of intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), both of which deliver highly conformal dose distributions. Studies have shown the superiority of VMAT and IMRT in comparison with 3-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3D-CRT) in planning target volume (PTV) coverage and organs-at-risk (OARs) sparing. This is the first study examining the benefits of VMAT in pancreatic cancer for doses more than 55.8 Gy. A planning study comparing 3D-CRT, IMRT, and VMAT was performed in 20 patients with pancreatic cancer. Treatments were planned for a 25-fraction delivery of 45 Gy to a large field followed by a reduced-volume 8-fraction external beam boost to 59.4 Gy in total. OARs and PTV doses, conformality index (CI) deviations from 1.0, monitor units (MUs) delivered, and isodose volumes were compared. IMRT and VMAT CI deviations from 1.0 for the large-field and the boost plans were equivalent (large field: 0.032 and 0.046, respectively; boost: 0.042 and 0.037, respectively; p > 0.05 for all comparisons). Both IMRT and VMAT CI deviations from 1.0 were statistically superior to 3D-CRT (large field: 0.217, boost: 0.177; p < 0.05 for all comparisons). VMAT showed reduction of the mean dose to the boost PTV (VMAT: 61.4 Gy, IMRT: 62.4 Gy, and 3D-CRT: 62.3 Gy; p < 0.05). The mean number of MUs per fraction was significantly lower for VMAT for both the large-field and the boost plans. VMAT delivery time was less than 3 minutes compared with 8 minutes for IMRT. Although no statistically significant dose reduction to the OARs was identified when comparing VMAT with IMRT, VMAT showed a reduction in the volumes of the 100% isodose line for the large-field plans. Dose escalation to 59.4 Gy in pancreatic cancer is dosimetrically feasible with shorter treatment times, fewer MUs delivered, and comparable CIs for VMAT when compared with IMRT.     

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma radiotherapy with hybrid technique

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of the Hybrid technique which was created by combining of intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) and volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) for the treatment of nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) patients. 7 to 9 field IMRT, triple arc VMAT, and Hybrid plans were generated for 10 advanced stage NPC patients. The homogeneity index (HI) and the conformity index (CI) of planning target volumes (PTVs) were calculated for each technique to evaluate the plan quality. The techniques were compared in terms of plan quality, sparing of organs at risk (OARs), monitor units (MUs), and delivery time. Hybrid technique significantly improved the target dose homogeneity and the conformity for PTV70 and PTV60 compared to IMRT and VMAT. Hybrid plans significantly reduced the maximum dose of the brainstem sparing compared to the VMAT plans and also improved the sparing of spinal cord compared to IMRT and VMAT. The MUs and the delivery time of Hybrid plans were found to be between values for IMRT and VMAT plans. Hybrid technique can be useful when IMRT and VMAT techniques are not adequate alone in the treatment of NPC patients.     

Dosimetric comparison of different multileaf collimator leaves in treatment planning of intensity-modulated radiotherapy for cervical cancer

To study the effect of multileaf collimator (MLC) leaf widths (standard MLC [sMLC] width of 10 mm and micro-MLC [mMLC] width of 4 mm) on intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) for cervical cancer. Between January 2010 and August 2010, a retrospective analysis was conducted on 12 patients with cervical cancer. The treatment plans for all patients were generated with the same machine setup parameters and optimization methods in a treatment planning system (TPS) based on 2 commercial Elekta MLC devices. The dose distribution for the planning tumor volume (PTV), the dose sparing for organs at risk (OARs), the monitor units (MUs), and the number of IMRT segments were evaluated. For the delivery efficiency, the MUs were significantly higher in the sMLC-IMRT plan than in the mMLC-IMRT plan (802 ± 56.9 vs 702 ± 56.7; p < 0.05). The number of segments in the plans were 58.75 ± 1.8 and 59 ± 1.04 (p > 0.05). For the planning quality, the conformity index (CI) between the 2 paired IMRT plans with the mMLC and the sMLC did not differ significantly (average: 0.817 ± 0.024 vs 0.810 ± 0.028; p > 0.05). The differences of the homogeneity index (HI) between the 2 paired plans were statistically significant (average: 1.122 ± 0.010 vs 1.132 ± 0.014; p < 0.01). For OARs, the rectum, bladder, small intestine, and bony pelvis were evaluated in terms of V₁₀, V₂₀, V₃₀, and V₄₀, percentage of contoured OAR volumes receiving 10, 20, 30, and 40 Gy, respectively, and the mean dose (D_mean) received. The IMRT plans with the mMLC protected the OARs better than the plans with the sMLC. There were significant differences (p < 0.05) in evaluated parameters between the 2 paired IMRT plans, except for V₃₀ and V₄₀ of the rectum and V₁₀, V₂₀, V₄₀, and D_mean of the bladder. IMRT plans with the mMLC showed advantages over the plans with the sMLC in dose homogeneity for targets, dose sparing of OARs, and fewer MUs in cervical cancer.     

VMAT partial arc technique decreases dose to organs at risk in whole pelvic radiotherapy for prostate cancer when compared to full arc VMAT and IMRT

Whole pelvic radiotherapy (WPRT) can sterilize microscopic lymph node metastases in treatment of prostate cancer. WPRT, compared to prostate only radiotherapy (PORT), is associated with increased acute gastrointestinal, and hematological toxicities. To further explore minimizing normal tissue toxicities associated with WPRT in definitive IMRT for prostate cancer, this planning study compared dosimetric differences between static 9-field-IMRT, full arc VMAT, and mixed partial-full arc VMAT techniques. In this retrospective study, 12 prostate cancer patients who met the criteria for WPRT were randomly selected for this study. The initial volume, PTV46, included the prostate, seminal vesicles, and pelvic nodes with margin and was prescribed to 4600 cGy. The cone-down volume, PTV78, included the prostate and proximal seminal vesicles with margin to a total dose of 7800 cGy. For each CT image set, 3 plans were generated for each of the PTVs: an IMRT plan, a full arc (FA) VMAT plan, and a mixed partial-full arc (PFA) VMAT plan, using 6MV photons energy. According to RTOG protocols none of the plans had a major Conformity Index (CI) violation by any of the 3 planning techniques. PFA plan had the best mean CI index of 1.00 and significantly better than IMRT (p = 0.03) and FA (p = 0.007). For equivalent PTV coverage, the average composite gradient index of the PFA plans was better than the IMRT and the FA plans with values 1.92, 2.03, and 2.01 respectively. The defference was statistically significant between PFA/IMRT and PFA/FA, with p- values of < 0.001. The IMRT plans and the PFA plans provided very similar doses to the rectum, bladder, sigmoid colon, and femoral heads, which were lower than the dose in the FA plans. There was a significant decrease in the mean dose to the rectum from 4524 cGy with the FA to 4182 cGy with the PFA and 4091 cGy with IMRT (p < 0.001). The percent of rectum receiving 4000 cGy was also the highest with FA at 66.1% compared to 49.9% (PFA) and 47.5% (IMRT). There was a significant decrease in the mean dose to the bladder from 3922 cGy (FA) to 3551 cGy (PFA) and 3612 cGy (IMRT) (p < 0.001). The percent of bladder receiving 4000 cGy was also the highest with FA at 45.4% compared to 36.6% (PFA) and 37.4% (IMRT). The average mean dose to the sigmoid colon decreased from 4177 cGy (FA) to 3893 cGy (PFA) and 3819 cGy (IMRT). The average mean dose to the femoral heads decreased from 2091 cGy (FA) to 2026 cGy (PFA) and 1987 cGy (IMRT). Considering the improvement in plan quality indices recorded in this study including the dose gradient and the dose to organs at risk, mixed partial-full arc plans may be the preferred VMAT treatment technique over full arc plans for prostate cancer treatments that include nodal volumes.     

Evaluation of incidental testicular dose with thermoluminescence dosimetry during prostate radiotherapy

The aim of this study was to investigate incidental testicular doses during intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) in patients treated with prostate radiotherapy only (PORT) and whole pelvis radiotherapy (WPRT). A total of 34 prostate cancer patients with intermediate and high risk were included in this prospective study. Each patient in the intermediate risk group received a total of 78 Gy in 39 fractions for prostate and seminal vesicles. In patients in the high risk group, 2 Gy daily fraction dose for pelvic lymphatics was given to 50 Gy, and then 78 Gy was given to prostate and seminal vesicles volumes. Treatment plans were created for all patients using the IMRT technique with 6MV. Testicular doses were measured for WPRT and PORT by thermoluminescence dosimetry (TLD) detectors placed on testis surface. Testicular doses measured for WPRT and PORT were compared. The isocenter to testicular distance for WPRT and PORT was 16.83-cm (13.20 to 18.80-cm) and 11.15 cm (9.10 to 13.00-cm), respectively. The mean testicular dose measurements of TPS and TLD per fraction during PORT were 2.41 cGy (1.95 to 3.60 cGy) and 3.70 cGy (2.80 to 5.10 cGy), respectively (p = 0.00). In WPRT irradiation, mean testicular dose values of TPS and TLD per fraction were measured as 3.85 cGy (2.00 to 5.70 cGy) and 5.85 cGy (4.25 to 7.55 cGy), respectively (p = 0.00). The cumulative mean scattered dose for PORT irradiation of 78 Gy in 39 fractions was 144.30 cGy. The mean cumulative dose received by the testis for the high-risk prostate patient was 228.15 cGy. There was a significant difference in testicular dose between WPRT and PORT irradiation. Testicular doses decreased significantly with increasing isocenter-testis distance. Incidental testicular dose during prostate radiotherapy can be significantly detrimental to spermatogenesis. Therefore, the testicles should be contoured as an organ at risk for the estimation of absorbed doses. The use of in vivo dosimetry is recommended for accurate measurement of testicular dose in radiotherapy of prostate cancer for men desiring continued fertility.     

Comparison of IMRT and VMAT plans with different energy levels using Monte-Carlo algorithm for prostate cancer

Purpose

To make dosimetric comparisons of volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT) and 7-field intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) with dynamic MLCs using the Monaco treatment planning system with Monte Carlo algorithm.

Materials and methods

Single-arc VMAT and 7-field IMRT treatment plans were compared for 12 intermediate risk prostate cancer patients treated with prostate and seminal vesicle radiotherapy. For all patients, the prescribed dose was 78 Gy delivered in 39 fractions. The dosimetric data of IMRT and VMAT plans with 6, 10 and 15 MV energies were compared. The comparison was made for target volume, organs at risk (OAR) doses, and for monitor units (MU).

Results

The normal tissue surrounding the target were lower in VMAT plans compared to IMRT plans. VMAT plans achieved lower doses to all OARs for nearly all dosimetric endpoints. VMAT plans achieved 9.4, 9.0 and 7.0 % relative decrease in MUs required for RT delivery, for 6, 10 and 15 MV energy levels, respectively. The target volume and OAR dosimetric values did not differ significantly between 6, 10 and 15 MV photon energies.

Conclusion

VMAT plans were found to be dosimetrically equivalent to IMRT plans for prostate cancer patients, with better rectum and bladder sparing and fewer MUs required.     

容积旋转调强与固定野动态调强在宫颈癌术后放疗的剂量学比较

目的 比较容积旋转调强（RapidArc）与固定野动态调强（IMRT）两种宫颈癌术后放疗的剂量学参数及急性不良反应发生率,为临床治疗技术的选择提供参考依据。方法 选取35例宫颈癌术后盆腔预防放疗患者,其中,17例接受RapidArc,18例接受IMRT,处方剂量50 Gy,共25次。比较两组治疗计划的剂量-体积直方图（DVH）、靶区剂量适形度、均匀性、靶区及危及器官的剂量、机器跳数及治疗时间;对比两组患者治疗期间的急性肠道及膀胱反应发生率。结果 与IMRT相比,RapidArc靶区剂量适形度较高（t=3.13,P<0.05）,但均匀性略低（t=-4.25,P<0.05）;RapidArc计划中股骨头V₂₀、V₃₀均低于IMRT（t=2.56、2.34,P<0.05）;RapidArc计划机器跳数减少了52.1%,治疗所需时间缩短了46.8%。两组患者肠道、膀胱急性不良反应发生率相近。结论 对于宫颈癌术后盆腔预防放疗患者,采用RapidArc或IMRT技术均可达到靶区的剂量要求及保护危及器官的目的。RapidArc计划靶区剂量学参数、急性不良反应发生率与IMRT计划比较未见明显优势,但机器跳数与出束时间明显优于IMRT计划,实现了治疗效率的大幅提高。     

Assessing the feasibility of volumetric-modulated arc therapy using simultaneous integrated boost (SIB-VMAT): An analysis for complex head-neck,high-risk prostate and rectal cancer cases

Intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) allowed the simultaneous delivery of different doses to different target volumes within a single fraction, an approach called simultaneous integrated boost (SIB). As consequence, the fraction dose to the boost volume can be increased while keeping low doses to the elective volumes, and the number of fractions and overall treatment time will be reduced, translating into better radiobiological effectiveness. In recent years, volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT) has been shown to provide similar plan quality with respect to fixed-field IMRT but with large reduction in treatment time and monitor units (MUs) number. However, the feasibility of VMAT when used with SIB strategy has few investigations to date. We explored the potential of VMAT in a SIB strategy for complex cancer sites. A total of 15 patients were selected, including 5 head-and-neck, 5 high-risk prostate, and 5 rectal cancer cases. Both a double-arc VMAT and a 7-field IMRT plan were generated for each case using Oncentra MasterPlan treatment planning system for an Elekta Precise linac. Dosimetric indexes for targets and organs at risk (OARs) were compared based on dose-volume histograms. Conformity index, homogeneity index, and dose-contrast index were used for target analyses. The equivalent uniform doses and the normal tissue complication probabilities were calculated for main OARs. MUs number and treatment time were analyzed to score treatment efficiency. Pretreatment dosimetry was performed using 2-dimensional (2D)-array dosimeter. SIB-VMAT plans showed a high level of fluence modulation needed for SIB treatments, high conformal dose distribution, similar target coverage, and a tendency to improve OARs sparing compared with the benchmark SIB-IMRT plans. The median treatment times reduced from 13 to 20 minutes to approximately 5 minutes for all cases with SIB-VMAT, with a MUs reduction up to 22.5%. The 2D-array ion-chambers' measurements reported an agreement of more than 95% for a criterion of 3% to 3 mm. SIB-VMAT was able to combine the advantages of conventional SIB-IMRT with its highly conformal dose distribution and OARs sparing and the advantages of 3D-conformal radiotherapy with its fast delivery.     

Intensity-modulated radiation therapy for pancreatic and prostate cancer using pulsed low–dose rate delivery techniques

Reirradiation of patients who were previously treated with radiotherapy is vastly challenging. Pulsed low–dose rate (PLDR) external beam radiotherapy has the potential to reduce normal tissue toxicities while providing significant tumor control for recurrent cancers. This work investigates treatment planning techniques for intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT)-based PLDR treatment of various sites, including cases with pancreatic and prostate cancer. A total of 20 patients with clinical recurrence were selected for this study, including 10 cases with pancreatic cancer and 10 with prostate cancer. Large variations in the target volume were included to test the ability of IMRT using the existing treatment planning system and optimization algorithm to deliver uniform doses in individual gantry angles/fields for PLDR treatments. Treatment plans were generated with 10 gantry angles using the step-and-shoot IMRT delivery technique, which can be delivered in 3-minute intervals to achieve an effective low dose rate of 6.7 cGy/min. Instead of dose constraints on critical structures, ring structures were mainly used in PLDR-IMRT optimization. In this study, the PLDR-IMRT plans were compared with the PLDR-3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3DCRT) plans and the PLDR-RapidArc plans. For the 10 cases with pancreatic cancer that were investigated, the mean planning target volume (PTV) dose for each gantry angle in the PLDR-IMRT plans ranged from 17.6 to 22.4 cGy. The maximum doses ranged between 22.9 and 34.8 cGy. The minimum doses ranged from 8.2 to 17.5 cGy. For the 10 cases with prostate cancer that were investigated, the mean PTV doses for individual gantry angles ranged from 18.8 to 22.6 cGy. The maximum doses per gantry angle were between 24.0 and 34.7 cGy. The minimum doses per gantry angle ranged from 4.4 to 17.4 cGy. A significant reduction in the organ at risk (OAR) dose was observed with the PLDR-IMRT plan when compared with that using the PLDR-3DCRT plan. The volume receiving an 18-Gy (V₁₈) dose for the left and right kidneys was reduced by 10.6% and 12.5%, respectively, for the pancreatic plans. The volume receiving a 45-Gy (V₄₅) dose for the small bowel decreased from 65.3% to 45.5%. For the cases with prostate cancer, the volume receiving a 40-Gy (V₄₀) dose for the bladder and the rectum was reduced significantly by 25.1% and 51.2%, respectively. When compared with the RapidArc technique, the volume receiving a 30-Gy (V₃₀) dose for the left and the right kidneys was lower in the IMRT plans. For most OARs, no significant differences were observed between the PLDR-IMRT and the PLDR-RapidArc plans. These results clearly demonstrated that the PLDR-IMRT plan was suitable for PLDR pancreatic and prostate cancer treatments in terms of the overall plan quality. A significant reduction in the OAR dose was achieved with the PLDR-IMRT plan when compared with that using the PLDR-3DCRT plan. For most OARs, no significant differences were observed between the PLDR-IMRT and the PLDR-RapidArc plans. When compared with the PLDR-3DCRT plan, the PLDR-IMRT plan could provide superior target coverage and normal tissue sparing for PLDR reirradiation of recurrent pancreatic and prostate cancers. The PLDR-IMRT plan is an effective treatment choice for recurrent cancers in most cancer centers.     

A study of the dosimetric characteristics between different fixed-field IMRT and VMAT in early-stage primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma

This analysis was designed to compare dosimetric parameters among different fixed-field intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) solutions and volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT) to identify which can achieve the lowest risk of organs at risk (OARs) and treatment delivery efficiently. A total of 16 patients (8 male and 8 female) with early-stage primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma (PMBCL) were enrolled with planned gross tumor volume (PGTV) 45?Gy and planning target volume (PTV) 40?Gy. Four different plans were generated: 5-, 7, 9-field IMRT, and VMAT. The dose distributions for PGTV and PTV OARs (lungs, left ventricle, heart, thyroid gland, and breasts) were compared. The monitor units (MUs) and treatment delivery time were also evaluated. Mean conformity index (CI) and homogeneity index (HI) for PGTV in 5F-, 7F-, 9F-IMRT, and VMAT were 1.01 and 1.10, 1.01 and 1.10, 1.01 and 1.10, and 1.01 and 1.11 (p?=?0.963 and 0.843), whereas these 2 indices for PTV were 1.04 and 1.22, 1.03 and 1.19, 1.03 and 1.17, and 1.08 and 1.14 (p?=?0.964 and 0.969), respectively. D_mean (Gy), V4 (%), D50 (Gy), and D80 (Gy) to the left and right breasts increased by 0.7?Gy and 0.1?Gy, 6.8% and 7.7%, 0.9?Gy and 1.7?Gy, and 1.0?Gy and 1.5?Gy in VMAT, respectively. The 9-beam IMRT plan had the highest MUs (25,762.4 MUs) and the longest treatment delivery time (10.7 minutes); whereas, the VMAT had the lowest MUs (13,345.0) and the shortest treatment delivery time (5.9 minutes). Seven- and 9-field IMRT and VMAT provide improved tumor coverage compared with 5F-IMRT, whereas VMAT shows higher treatment delivery efficiency than IMRT technique. Seven- and 9-field IMRT slightly reduce the low dose radiation exposure of breasts compared with VMAT technique. The 7- and 9-field IMRT and VMAT techniques both can be safely and efficiently delivered to patients with PMBCL.     

胸上段食管癌无均整器容积弧形调强与固定野调强放疗计划的剂量学比较

目的 探讨在瓦里安TrueBeam^TM直线加速器中使用无均整器出束容积弧形调强(RA-FFF)及常规固定野调强(IMRT)两种计划剂量学差异.方法 选择10例分期为cT_2-3N_0-1M_0-1a胸上段食管癌患者定位CT资料,使用ECLIPSE^TM 10.0.4治疗计划系统分别设计RA-FFF、IMRT根治性放疗计划,处方剂量为60 Gy/30次,比较2种计划的剂量学参数和执行效率.结果 2种计划靶区适形度相似,差异无统计学意义;IMRT计划的均匀性指数高于RA-FFF计划(t=7.298,P=0.008);RA-FFF计划中肺组织的V₂₀、V₅低于IMRT计划(t=2.451、2.604,P<0.05).RA-FFF及IMRT两种计划制定时间分别为(5.3±1.4)、(3.5±1.7)h(t=2.585,P<0.05),机器总跳数分别为632±213及734±132(t=-1.287,P=0.084),治疗执行时间分别为(2.2±0.9)、(4.5±1.3)min(t=4.60,P<0.01).结论 与IMRT计划相比,RA-FFF在胸上段食管癌治疗中具有相似的靶区剂量分布,可更好地保护肺组织,计划制定时间较长但执行效率较高.     

Single-arc volumetric-modulated arc therapy (sVMAT) as adjuvant treatment for gastric cancer: Dosimetric comparisons with three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3D-CRT) and intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT)

To compare the dosimetric differences between the single-arc volumetric-modulated arc therapy (sVMAT), 3-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3D-CRT), and intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) techniques in treatment planning for gastric cancer as adjuvant radiotherapy. Twelve patients were retrospectively analyzed. In each patient's case, the parameters were compared based on the dose-volume histogram (DVH) of the sVMAT, 3D-CRT, and IMRT plans, respectively. Three techniques showed similar target dose coverage. The maximum and mean doses of the target were significantly higher in the sVMAT plans than that in 3D-CRT plans and in the 3D-CRT/IMRT plans, respectively, but these differences were clinically acceptable. The IMRT and sVMAT plans successfully achieved better target dose conformity, reduced the V_20/30, and mean dose of the left kidney, as well as the V_20/30 of the liver, compared with the 3D-CRT plans. And the sVMAT technique reduced the V₂₀ of the liver much significantly. Although the maximum dose of the spinal cord were much higher in the IMRT and sVMAT plans, respectively (mean 36.4 vs 39.5 and 40.6 Gy), these data were still under the constraints. Not much difference was found in the analysis of the parameters of the right kidney, intestine, and heart. The IMRT and sVMAT plans achieved similar dose distribution to the target, but superior to the 3D-CRT plans, in adjuvant radiotherapy for gastric cancer. The sVMAT technique improved the dose sparings of the left kidney and liver, compared with the 3D-CRT technique, but showed few dosimetric advantages over the IMRT technique. Studies are warranted to evaluate the clinical benefits of the VMAT treatment for patients with gastric cancer after surgery in the future.     

Dosimetric research on intensity-modulated arc radiotherapy planning for left breast cancer after breast-preservation surgery

Intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) has played an important role in breast cancer radiotherapy after breast-preservation surgery. Our aim was to study the dosimetric and implementation features/feasibility between IMRT and intensity-modulated arc radiotherapy (Varian RapidArc, Varian, Palo Alto, CA). The forward IMRT plan (f-IMRT), the inverse IMRT, and the RapidArc plan (RA) were generated for 10 patients. Afterward, we compared the target dose distribution of the 3 plans, radiation dose on organs at risk, monitor units, and treatment time. All 3 plans met clinical requirements, with RA performing best in target conformity. In target homogeneity, there was no statistical significance between RA and IMRT, but both of homogeneity were less than f-IMRT's. With regard to the V₅ and V₁₀ of the left lung, those in RA were higher than in f-IMRT but were lower than in IMRT; for V₂₀ and V₃₀, the lowest was observed in RA; and in the V₅ and V₁₀ of the right lung, as well as the mean dose in normal-side breast and right lung, there was no statistically significance difference between RA and IMRT, and the lowest value was observed in f-IMRT. As for the maximum dose in the normal-side breast, the lowest value was observed in RA. Regarding monitor units (MUs), those in RA were higher than in f-IMRT but were lower than in IMRT. Treatment time of RA was 84.6% and 88.23% shorter than f-IMRT and IMRT, respectively, on average. Compared with f-IMRT and IMRT, RA performed better in target conformity and can reduce high-dose volume in the heart and left lung—which are related to complications—significantly shortening treatment time as well. Compared with IMRT, RA can also significantly reduce low-dose volume and MUs of the afflicted lung.     

Dosimetric comparison of 3D conformal,IMRT, and V-MAT techniques for accelerated partial-breast irradiation (APBI)

The purpose is to dosimetrically compare the following 3 delivery techniques: 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT), intensity-modulated arc therapy (IMRT), and volumetric-modulated arc therapy (V-MAT) in the treatment of accelerated partial-breast irradiation (APBI). Overall, 16 patients with T1/2N0 breast cancer were treated with 3D-CRT (multiple, noncoplanar photon fields) on the RTOG 0413 partial-breast trial. These cases were subsequently replanned using static gantry IMRT and V-MAT technology to understand dosimetric differences among these 3 techniques. Several dosimetric parameters were used in plan quality evaluation, including dose conformity index (CI) and dose-volume histogram analysis of normal tissue coverage. Quality assurance studies including gamma analysis were performed to compare the measured and calculated dose distributions. The IMRT and V-MAT plans gave more conformal target dose distributions than the 3D-CRT plans (p < 0.05 in CI). The volume of ipsilateral breast receiving 5 and 10 Gy was significantly less using the V-MAT technique than with either 3D-CRT or IMRT (p < 0.05). The maximum lung dose and the ipsilateral lung volume receiving 10 (V₁₀) or 20 Gy (V₂₀) were significantly less with both V-MAT and IMRT (p < 0.05). The IMRT technique was superior to 3D-CRT and V-MAT of low dose distributions in ipsilateral lung (p < 0.05 in V₅ and D₅). The total mean monitor units (MUs) for V-MAT (621.0 ± 111.9) were 12.2% less than those for 3D-CRT (707.3 ± 130.9) and 46.5% less than those for IMRT (1161.4 ± 315.6) (p < 0.05). The average machine delivery time was 1.5 ± 0.2 minutes for the V-MAT plans, 7.0 ± 1.6 minutes for the 3D-CRT plans, and 11.5 ± 1.9 minutes for the IMRT plans, demonstrating much less delivery time for V-MAT. Based on this preliminary study, V-MAT and IMRT techniques offer improved dose conformity as compared with 3D-CRT techniques without increasing dose to the ipsilateral lung. In terms of MU and delivery time, V-MAT is significantly more efficient for APBI than for conventional 3D-CRT and static-beam IMRT.     

乳腺癌保乳术后两野与多野动态调强的剂量学研究

目的 比较早期乳腺癌保乳术后切线2野动态调强与非共面多野调强放疗治疗靶区和危及器官的剂量学差异。方法 选取40例接受保乳术后放疗的左侧乳腺癌患者,在同一患者CT影像上,利用相同优化条件分别进行切线2野和非共面3、4、5野4种调强治疗计划设计。比较4种计划的靶区剂量分布、心脏、左肺及右侧乳腺受照剂量和体积,以及机器跳数的差异。结果 非共面4、5野调强计划适形度指数（CI）和均匀性指数（HI）均优于切线2野调强计划（P<0.05）,临床靶区（PTV）最大剂量（D_max）小于2野调强计划（P<0.05）,PTV最小剂量（D_min）大于2野调强计划（P<0.05）。3野与2野计划间无明显差异。4种计划的右乳接受5 Gy照射的百分体积（V₅）、心脏接受30 Gy照射的百分体积（V₃₀）及平均剂量（D_mean）、左肺接受20和5 Gy照射的百分体积（V₂₀、V₅）、平均剂量（D_mean）无明显差异,而机器跳数间差异有统计学意义（F=25.63,P<0.05）,2野调强跳数最少,5野最多。结论 保乳术后非共面4、5野调强计划与切线2野调强计划相比,靶区剂量分布更好,不明显增加正常组织、器官的受照射剂量,但机器跳数明显增加。     

The effect of the target-organ geometric complexity on the choice of delivery between RapidArc and sliding-window IMRT for nasopharyngeal carcinoma

We attempted to assess the effect of target-organ geometric complexity on the plan quality of sliding-window intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), double-arc (RA2), and triple-arc (RA3) RapidArc volumetric-modulated arc radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Plans for 9-field sliding-window IMRT, RA2, and RA3 were optimized for 36 patients with NPC ranging from T1 to T4 tumors. Initially the patients were divided into 2 groups, with group A representing the most simple early stage (T1 and T2) cases, whereas group B represented the more complex advanced cases (T3 and T4). Evaluation was performed based on target conformity, target dose homogeneity, organ-sparing capability, and delivery efficiency. Based on the plan quality results, a subgroup of advanced cases, group B2, representing the most demanding task was distinguished and reported separately from the rest of the group B cases, B1. Detailed analysis was performed on the anatomic features for each group of cases, so that planners can easily identify the differences between B1 and B2. For the group A cases, RA3 plans were superior to the IMRT plans in terms of organ sparing, whereas target conformity and dose homogeneity were similar. For the group B1 cases, the RA3 plans produced almost equivalent plan quality as the IMRT plans. For the group B2 cases, for most of which large target volumes were adjacent to (5 mm or less) and wrapping around the brain stem, RA2 and RA3 were inferior to the IMRT regarding both target dose homogeneity and conformity. RA2 plans were slightly inferior to IMRT and RA3 plans for most cases. The plan comparison results depend on the target to brain stem distances and the target sizes. The plan quality results together with the anatomic information may allow the evaluation of the 3 treatment options before actual planning.     

鼻咽癌三种调强放疗计划剂量学对比研究

目的 对比鼻咽癌常规固定野调强（IMRT）、容积旋转调强（VMAT）以及断层调强（HT）3种不同调强放疗计划的剂量学差异。方法 选择18例接受VMAT治疗的鼻咽癌患者,以相同处方剂量和目标条件分别重新进行IMRT和HT计划设计。比较3种计划靶区的均匀度（HI）、适形度（CI）、最大剂量以及平均剂量。危及器官的最大量和平均量以及感兴趣区的剂量体积、计划执行时间和机器跳数（MU）。结果 3种计划在靶区的覆盖率满足临床要求。IMRT计划在靶区的HI和CI方面结果最差,HT计划结果最优。危及器官方面,IMRT计划受量最高,HT计划的脊髓、脑干和腮腺受量最低;但对于视神经、晶状体以及视交叉HT计划的受量最高而VMAT计划的受量最低。IMRT的治疗时间（8.0±0.5） min高于VMAT（3.9±0.1）min和HT（7.4±0.9）min。与VMAT相比,IMRT每次治疗为（711.4±78.7）MU,高于VMAT的（596.4±33.7）MU。结论 鼻咽癌IMRT、VMAT以及HT计划在靶区覆盖和危及器官保护上都可以达到临床要求,在靶区的适形度和均匀性上HT计划优于VMAT和IMRT,但在治疗时间和加速器的机器跳数上VMAT较有优势。     

Postmastectomy radiotherapy for left-sided breast cancer patients: Comparison of advanced techniques

Postmastectomy radiotherapy (PMRT) has been shown to improve the overall survival for invasive breast cancer patients, and many advanced radiotherapy technologies were adopted for PMRT. The purpose of our study is to compare various advanced PMRT techniques including fixed-beam intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), non-coplanar volumetric modulated arc therapy (NC-VMAT), multiple arc VMAT (MA-VMAT), and tomotherapy (TOMO). Results of standard VMAT and mixed beam therapy that were published by our group previously were also included in the plan comparisons. Treatment plans were produced for nine PMRT patients previously treated in our clinic. The plans were evaluated based on planning target volume (PTV) coverage, dose homogeneity index (DHI), conformity index (CI), dose to organs at risk (OARs), normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) of pneumonitis, lifetime attributable risk (LAR) of second cancers, and risk of coronary events (RCE). All techniques produced clinically acceptable PMRT plans. Overall, fixed-beam IMRT delivered the lowest mean dose to contralateral breast (1.56 ± 0.4 Gy) and exhibited lowest LAR (0.6 ± 0.2%) of secondary contralateral breast cancer; NC-VMAT delivered the lowest mean dose to lungs (7.5 ± 0.8 Gy), exhibited lowest LAR (5.4 ± 2.8%) of secondary lung cancer and lowest NTCP (2.1 ± 0.4%) of pneumonitis; mixed beam therapy delivered the lowest mean dose to heart (7.1 ± 1.3 Gy) and exhibited lowest RCE (8.6 ± 7.1%); TOMO plans provided the most optimal target coverage while delivering higher dose to OARs than other techniques. Both NC-VMAT and MA-VMAT exhibited lower values of all OARs evaluation metrics compare to standard VMAT. Fixed-beam IMRT, NC-VMAT, and mixed beam therapy could be the optimal radiation technique for certain breast cancer patients after mastectomy.     

Measurements of Characteristics of Time Pattern in Dose Delivery in Step-and-Shoot IMRT

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Although intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) has already shown its clinical benefit, there are some issues which are not yet fully understood. Among these is the question whether the protracted dose delivery due to the lowered dose rate has any radiobiological consequences. To investigate this question, an exact characterization of dose rate profiles in typical clinical plans is needed. Furthermore, such a characterization may lead to an increased knowledge how to improve IMRT technically. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A new IMRT phantom which allows precise measurement of up to nine points of interest simultaneously with pin-point ionization chambers was developed. To examine dose rates, a new software tool (GRAYHOUND) was developed which can measure doses in short time intervals of up to 0.5 s. 250 points in four clinical IMRT plans were examined. A set of parameters was defined to describe the dose rate profiles including the effective fraction time (eft, which is the percentage of the fraction time in which any dose is delivered to a specific point), and a quotient of the percentage of dose delivered in high dose pulses (> 0.01 Gy/s) divided by the percentage of fraction time needed to deliver this dose (d(HD)/t(HD)). RESULTS: These quotients are excellent markers for the inhomogeneity of dose rate delivery in IMRT. In both parameters a wide variance in points of the same plan and between different plans was found. For example, eft ranged between 11.6% and 37.3% in high dose points and the time in which high dose rates are delivered to a single high dose point ranged between 3.6% and 10.1% of total fraction time. CONCLUSIONS: These data show a great inhomogeneity of dose rates not only between different plans but also between different points in the same plan. Biological investigations are needed to quantify the relevance of these inhomogeneities. The parameters which are introduced in this work may be suitable to compare different optimization algorithms in IMRT.     

Optimization of the primary collimator settings for fractionated IMRT stereotactic radiotherapy.

Advances in field-shaping techniques for stereotactic radiosurgery/radiotherapy have allowed dynamic adjustment of field shape with gantry rotation (dynamic conformal arc) in an effort to minimize dose to critical structures. Recent work evaluated the potential for increased sparing of dose to normal tissues when the primary collimator setting is optimized to only the size necessary to cover the largest shape of the dynamic micro multi leaf field. Intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) is now a treatment option for patients receiving stereotactic radiotherapy treatments. This multisegmentation of the dose delivered through multiple fixed treatment fields provides for delivery of uniform dose to the tumor volume while allowing sparing of critical structures, particularly for patients whose tumor volumes are less suited for rotational treatment. For these segmented fields, the total number of monitor units (MUs) delivered may be much greater than the number of MUs required if dose delivery occurred through an unmodulated treatment field. As a result, undesired dose delivered, as leakage through the leaves to tissues outside the area of interest, will be proportionally increased. This work will evaluate the role of optimization of the primary collimator setting for these IMRT treatment fields, and compare these results to treatment fields where the primary collimator settings have not been optimized.