Optimization of the ω-3 extraction as a functional food from flaxseed

The fatty acid content, total lipid, refractive index, peroxide, iodine, acid and saponification values of Iranian linseed oil (Linum usitatissimum) were studied. For optimization of extraction conditions, this oil was extracted by solvents (petroleum benzene and methanol–water–petroleum benzene) in 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 ratios at 2, 5 and 8 h. Then its fatty acid content, omega-3 content and extraction yield were determined. According to the statistical analysis, petroleum benzene in a ratio of 1:3 at 5 h was chosen for the higher fatty acid, extraction yield, and economical feasibility. For preservation of ω-3 ingredients, oil with specified characters containing 46.8% ω-3 was kept under a nitrogen atmosphere at ?30°C during 0, 7, 30, 60 and 90 days and its peroxide value was determined. Statistical analysis showed a significant difference in the average amount of peroxide value only on the first 7 days of storage, and its increase (8.30%) conformed to the international standard.     

Effect of ω-3 and ω-9 fatty acid rich oils on lipoxygenases and cyclooxygenases enzymes and on the growth of a mammary adenocarcinoma model

Background

Nutritional factors play a major role in cancer initiation and development. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have the ability to induce modifications in the activity of lipoxygenase (LOX) and cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes that affect tumour growth. We studied the effect of two diets enriched in 6% Walnut and Peanut oils that are rich in ω-3 and ω9 PUFAs respectively on a murine mammary gland adenocarcinoma as compared with the control (C) that received commercial diet.

Results

Peanut oil enriched diet induced an increase in membrane arachidonic acid (AA) content and the cyclooxygenase enzyme derived 12-HHT (p < 0.05) and simultaneously showed decrease in 12-LOX, 15-LOX-2, 15-LOX-1 and PGE activities (p < 0.05) that corresponded to higher apoptosis and lower mitosis seen in this group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, Peanut oil group showed lower T-cell infiltration (p < 0.05), number of metastasis (p < 0.05) and tumour volume (p < 0.05) and longer survival rate compared to other groups.

Conclusions

The results of the present study showed that Peanut oil-enriched diet protects against mammary cancer development by modulating tumour membrane fatty acids composition and LOX and COX enzyme activities.     

Association between interaction and ratio of ω-3 and ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid and the metabolic syndrome in adults

ObjectiveTo investigate the association of the intakes of ω-3 (including α-linolenic acid [ALA], eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA] plus docosahexaenoic acid [DHA]) and ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), the interaction, and the ratio of these PUFAs with the metabolic syndrome (MetS) in adults.MethodsThis cross-sectional study was conducted in a random sample of participants (n = 2451, 19–84 y old) in the Tehran Lipid Glucose Study. Dietary intake was assessed using a validated semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire. Anthropometric characteristics, blood pressure, and fasting plasma concentrations of glucose and lipids were measured. The MetS was defined according to the Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines.ResultsAmong the PUFAs, the ALA and ω-6 PUFA intakes were inversely associated with the MetS. Subjects in the highest quartile of ALA and ω-6 fatty acid intakes had a 38% (odds ratio 0.62, 95% confidence interval 0.41–0.95) and a 0.47% (odds ratio 0.53, 95% confidence interval 0.31–0.89) lower prevalence of MetS, respectively, compared with those in the lowest quartile. The dietary ratio of ω-6 to ω-3 fatty acids was not associated with the MetS. When the interaction between ALA and ω-6 fatty acid was assessed, the ALA intake was associated with a lower prevalence of the MetS, without modification by the ω-6 PUFA intake. Subjects with at least the median ALA intake (1084 mg/d) had a lower prevalence of the MetS, irrespective of an ω-6 PUFA intake lower or higher than the median compared with subjects with intakes below the median for both.ConclusionThe ALA intake was inversely associated with the MetS, irrespective of the background intake of ω-6 PUFAs, in adults.     

Stearidonic acid as a supplemental source of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids to enhance status for improved human health

There is substantial evidence to show that consumption and increased blood levels of the very long-chain (VLC) ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are associated with health benefits. The consumption of oily fish is an effective way of increasing EPA and DHA intake and status, but intake in most Western countries remains below the levels recommended for optimal health. The reasons for this include not liking the taste, a concern about sustainability of fish supplies, or potential chemical and heavy metal contamination. Alternative dietary sources of ω-3 fatty acids to enhance EPA and DHA status in the body would therefore be beneficial. There are many non-fish food sources of the essential plant-derived ω-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid, but conversion from this to longer-chain EPA and especially to DHA is poor. Stearidonic acid (SDA) is an intermediate fatty acid in the biosynthetic pathway from α-linolenic acid to VLC ω-3 PUFAs and the conversion from SDA is more efficient than from α-linolenic acid. However, there are few food sources rich in SDA. Oil crops naturally rich in SDA or enriched through genetic modification may offer an alternative supplemental oil to boost the population status of VLC ω-3 PUFAs. This review discusses the currently available evidence that increased SDA consumption can increase red blood cell EPA content, although this is less than the effect of supplementation directly with EPA. There is now a need for trials specifically designed to assess whether an increased SDA consumption would translate into improved human health outcomes.     

Longitudinal relationship between dietary ω-3 fatty acids and periodontal disease

ObjectiveFish oil has anti-inflammatory actions that may benefit periodontal health. We investigated the longitudinal relation between dietary ω-3 fatty acids (FAs), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) to periodontal disease in community-dwelling elderly.MethodsFifty-five participants aged 74 y were randomly selected from a longitudinal interdisciplinary study of aging. Dietary intake data were obtained by a 3-d weighed food intake. The dietary intakes of energy, DHA, and EPA were calculated based on the Standard Food Composition Tables in Japan. Dental examinations were carried out at baseline and once a year for 5 y. The number of teeth with periodontal progression over 5 y per person was calculated as “periodontal disease events.” Negative binomial regression analysis was conducted, which included DHA, EPA, and other covariates as independent variables to estimate the influence on periodontal disease events. Longitudinal data were analyzed for participants for whom data were available for 5 y (n = 36).ResultsLow DHA intake was significantly associated with more periodontal disease events. The mean number of periodontal disease events for participants who consumed the lowest tertile of DHA was approximately 1.5 times larger (lowest tertile, incidence rate ratio 1.49, 95% confidence interval 1.01–2.21) than the reference group (highest tertile of DHA consumption), after simultaneously adjusting for possible confounders.ConclusionThe findings suggest there may be an inverse, independent relation of dietary DHA intake to the progression of periodontal disease in older people.     

Pharmacoeconomics of Parenteral Nutrition with ω-3 Fatty Acids in Hospitalized Adults

The inclusion of ω-3 fatty acids as part of parenteral nutrition is associated with clinical benefits such as a reduced likelihood of infectious complications and shorter hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) stays. As healthcare resources are limited, pharmacoeconomic analyses have been performed, typically modeling studies, using cost and outcomes data to investigate the cost-effectiveness of parenteral nutrition regimens including ω-3 fatty acids from fish oil compared with standard parenteral nutrition without such ω-3 fatty acids. This review covers pharmacoeconomic studies encompassing Italian, French, German, and UK hospitals for ICU and non-ICU hospitalized patients, and for ICU patients in China. The results show that the use of parenteral nutrition including ω-3 fatty acids more than offsets any additional acquisition costs in all national scenarios investigated to date, indicating that parenteral nutrition including ω-3 fatty acids is a clinically and economically beneficial strategy compared with standard parenteral nutrition.     

Lymph duct ligation during ischemia/reperfusion prevents pulmonary dysfunction in a rat model with ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid and glutamine

Objective

The release of injurious factors into the mesenteric lymph from the ischemic intestine has been shown to contribute to lung injury and systemic inflammation after severe injury. We studied the effects of lung injury and systemic inflammatory reaction after intestinal ischemia/reperfusion and mesenteric lymph duct ligation with different nutritional statuses.

Methods

Rats (n = 72) were fed with a normal diet or received one of three diets (enteral nutrition, glutamine, or ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid) that were isocaloric and isonitrogenous. After 7 d, rats were subjected to 60 min of intestinal ischemia, ischemia plus mesenteric lymph duct ligation, or sham procedures. After 3 d of ischemia, the lymph nodes, lung, intestinal, liver, and blood were harvested and analyzed.

Results

In the different groups, lung injury, including levels of myeloperoxidase, nitric oxide, nitric oxide synthase, and the index of alveolar apoptosis, were partly prevented by mesenteric lymph duct ligation (P < 0.05). Likewise, the rats with ischemia/reperfusion, but not those with duct ligation plus ischemia/reperfusion, had a significant increase in intestinal permeability and decreased mucosal thickness. The serum cytokine and endotoxin concentrations were also lower in the lymph duct ligation groups, although there was no significant difference between lymph duct ligation and sham procedure. The lung and intestinal injuries were attenuated in the groups fed with glutamine and ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid.

Conclusion

These results indicate that lymph duct ligation prevents lung injury, a systemic inflammation reaction, and gut-barrier dysfunction. Enteral glutamine and ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid modified the gut inflammation, prevented lung injury, and attenuated the systemic inflammation reaction.     

Effects of ω3- and ω6-Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on RANKL-Induced Osteoclast Differentiation of RAW264.7 Cells: A Comparative in Vitro Study

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been reported to have an anabolic effect on bone in vivo, but comparative studies to identify inhibitors of osteoclast formation amongst ω3- and ω6-PUFAs are still lacking. Here we assessed the effects of the ω3-PUFAs, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and the ω6-PUFAs, arachidonic acid (AA) and γ-linolenic acid (GLA) on a RAW264.7 osteoclast differentiation model. The effects of PUFAs on RANKL-induced osteoclast formation were evaluated by counting tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive multinucleated cells. PUFAs significantly inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclast formation in a dose-dependent manner with AA- and DHA-mediated inhibition being the strongest. Furthermore, RANKL-induced mRNA- and protein expression of the key osteoclastogenic genes cathepsin K and TRAP were inhibited by AA and more potently by DHA. Owing to the attenuated osteoclastogenesis by DHA and AA, actin ring formation and bone resorptive activity of these cells as evaluated on bone-mimetic plates were severely compromised. Hence, of the tested PUFAs, AA and DHA were found to be the most effective in inhibiting RANKL-induced osteoclast formation with the latter providing the strongest inhibitory effects. Collectively, the data indicates that these PUFAs may play an important role in regulating bone diseases characterized by excessive osteoclast activity.     

Assessing long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: A tailored food-frequency questionnaire is better

ObjectivePolyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including the long-chain (LC) ω-3 PUFAs, are important for health. The aim was to assess if the Anti-Cancer Council of Victoria Dietary Questionnaire (ACC DQ) accurately determines PUFA intakes compared with the recently validated electronic PUFA food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ).MethodsForty-one study volunteers were recruited from the local Illawarra region of New South Wales, Australia. The method of triads was used to determine validity coefficients by comparing the ACC DQ intakes against a 3-d weighed food record and appropriate blood biomarkers (erythrocytes and plasma fatty acids). These validity coefficients were subsequently compared with previously published validity coefficients from the PUFA FFQ.ResultsUsing erythrocytes as the biomarker, the electronic PUFA FFQ had much higher validity coefficients compared with the ACC DQ for eicosapentaenoic acid (0.92 versus 0.19), docosahexaenoic acid (0.69 versus 0.26), and total LC ω-3 PUFAs (0.78 versus 0.23), respectively, whereas ω-6 PUFAs were comparable. Using plasma as the biomarker, the electronic PUFA FFQ had much higher validity coefficients compared with the ACC DQ for α-linolenic acid (0.96 versus 0.49), eicosapentaenoic acid (0.87 versus 0.19), docosahexaenoic acid (0.64 versus 0.24), and total LC ω-3 PUFAs (0.73 versus 0.21), respectively, whereas ω-6 PUFAs were comparable.ConclusionThe validated electronic PUFA FFQ is better suited to determine ω-3 PUFA intakes than the ACC DQ.     

Can ω-3 fatty acids and tocotrienol-rich vitamin E reduce symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders?

The incidence of childhood neurodevelopmental disorders, which include autism, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders, and apraxia, are increasing worldwide and have a profound effect on the behaviors, cognitive skills, mood, and self-esteem of these children. Although the etiologies of these disorders are unclear, they often accompany genetic and biochemical abnormalities resulting in cognitive and communication difficulties. Because cognitive and neural development require essential fatty acids (particularly long-chain ω-3 fatty acids often lacking in mother's and children's diets) during critical growth periods, the potential behavior-modifying effects of these fatty acids as “brain nutrients” has attracted considerable attention. Additionally, there is compelling evidence for increased oxidative stress, altered antioxidant defenses, and neuroinflammation in these children. The purpose of this review is to provide a scientific rationale based on cellular, experimental animal model, observational, and clinical intervention studies for incorporating the combination of ω-3 fatty acids and tocotrienol-rich vitamin E as complementary nutritional therapies in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Should this nutritional combination correct key clinical or biochemical outcomes and/or improve behavioral patterns, it would provide a safe, complementary option for these children.     

Developmental and neurobehavioral effects of perinatal exposure to diets with different ω-6:ω-3 ratios in mice

ObjectiveTo investigate in mice the effect of diets enriched with soy or sunflower oil with different ω-6:ω-3 ratios on gestation, reproductive success, physical maturation, and the neurobiological development of the pups.MethodsDams were assigned, throughout gestation and lactation, to different groups: a commercial diet (CD), a soy oil–enriched diet (SOD), or a sunflower oil–enriched diet (SFOD). Measurements during gestation were dams' body weights and daily food intakes. Measurements in the offspring were physical parameters (body weight, body length, body mass index, fur appearance, pinna detachment, incisor eruption, eye opening, and puberty onset) and behavioral preweaning tests (surface righting reflex, negative geotaxis, and cliff avoidance).ResultsThe SOD and SFOD dams became significantly heavier than the CD dams from gestational days 14 and 19, respectively, to parturition. There were no significant differences in gestational length or food consumption during pregnancy or lactation or in maternal weight during lactation. Diets did not modify litter size, sex ratio, survival index at weaning, or body weight. The SFOD and SOD offspring were significantly shorter than the CD offspring at weaning. The mean offspring physical scores of SOD and SFOD offspring were higher than CD offspring and simple reflexes were earlier in the SOD and SFOD groups. In SFOD offspring, puberty onset was significantly delayed, at postnatal days 26 and 27 in male and female offspring, respectively.ConclusionThis study suggests that the maintenance of an adequate ω-6:ω-3 ratio is necessary for the optimal growth and development of murine offspring. In populations that do not have sufficient provision of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet, their consumption would be advisable during gestation and lactation because these improve most neurodevelopmental outcomes included in this study.     

Perioperative ω-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Nutritional Support in Gastrointestinal Cancer Surgical Patients: A Systematic Evaluation

This study was a systematic evaluation of the beneficial effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in abdominal cancer surgical patients. A literature search of the databases PubMed, Medline, Cochrane, and EMBASE was conducted for studies published up to November 2014 in English language journals. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining the effects of n-3 PUFA intake relative to conventional nutrition in surgical patients were included. The main outcomes were the duration of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), length of hospital stay (LOS), serum C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, and postoperative complications. We identified 15 RCTs among 158 relevant trials. The results indicated the associations between n-3 PUFA intake and reduced LOS [mean differences (MDs), ?2.47 d; 95% confidence intervals (CIs), ?3.25 to ?1.69], duration of SIRS (MD, ?0.57 d; 95% CI, ?0.92 to ?0.22), and serum CRP levels (MD, ?3.97 mg/l; 95% CI, ?7.88 to ?0.07) compared with consumption of conventional nutrition, as well as reduced incidence of postoperative infectious complications (risk ratio, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.49–0.87). This systematic evaluation suggests that n-3 PUFA significantly reduces the postoperative infectious complication rate, and shortens hospitalization and SIRS duration, particularly in malnourished gastrointestinal cancer patients.     

Low ω-6/ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratios reduce hepatic C-reactive protein expression in apolipoprotein E–null mice

ObjectiveExpression characteristics of C-reactive protein (CRP) for the ω-6/ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratios have not been evaluated in the well-qualified experimental atherosclerotic mouse model. This work focused on characteristics of CRP expression in the liver of apolipoprotein E–null (apoE^?/?) mice influenced by ω-6/ω-3 PUFA ratios.MethodsVarying ratios of ω-6/ω-3 PUFAs (group 1, 1.28; group 2, 5.03; group 3, 9.98; and group 4, 68.26, respectively) on hepatic and aortic CRP expressions were assessed in male apoE^?/? mice fed a diet containing 5% (w/w) experimental fat for 6 wk. Hepatic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ mRNA abundance, hepatic interleukin (IL)-6 protein level, atherosclerotic lesions, and serum cytokines including IL-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α were examined.ResultsAs the dietary ratio of ω-6/ω-3 fatty acids ascended, so did the expression of hepatic and aortic CRP and hepatic IL-6 protein. However, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ mRNA level had a tendency to decrease. Serum IL-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α levels did not show a statistical difference among the mice fed the four ratios of the ω-6/ω-3 PUFA diet. The group 4 mice developed a significant increase in atherosclerotic lesions compared with the other groups.ConclusionThe results indicated that low ratios of ω-6/ω-3 PUFAs (1.28–9.98) downregulated the hepatic and aortic CRP expressions and reduced aortic en face lesions in apoE^?/? mice compared with the high ratio of the ω-6/ω-3 PUFA diet.     

Role of Toll-like receptor 4 in intestinal ischemia-reperfusion and the interventional role of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

Toll-like receptors is a super-family of pathogen recognition-receptors discovered in recent years.During the process of ischemia-reperfusion, the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) combines with lipopolysaccharide and many endogenous ligands such as high mobility group protein B1, heparan sulfate, and fibrinogen. Through the myeloid differentiation protein 88 -dependent and -independent signaling pathways, the products induce the release of inflammatory cytokine-mediated inflammatory response, leading to injuries. ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, by inhibiting the signal pathway activation and target gene expression of TLR4, can influence the function of many immune cells and regulate the body's inflammatory response and immune function. This article reviews the function of TLR4 during ischemia-reperfusion injury and the possible interventional role of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.     

Making a difference - are you game?

Many 'bag carrying' general practitioners believe there is a gulf between the ivory tower of academia and the coalface of every day general practice. However, there are ways to share common ground. Many GPs are searching for an extra rewarding dimension to clinical work. They see things happening in their practice, have opinions, make changes and like to have a forum to discuss these thoughts with other like-minded GPs and primary care academics.     

Food patterns of Australian children ages 9 to 13 y in relation to ω-3 long chain polyunsaturated intake

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to examine food patterns of Australian children ages 9 to 13 y in relation to ω-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (ω-3 LCPUFA) intake.MethodsSecondary analysis was conducted on nationally representative food data of 1110 Australian children ages 9 to 13 y (525 boys and 585 girls) that was obtained using two 24-h recalls. Principle component factor analysis was used to identify food patterns. Discriminant function analysis was used to identify the relationship between the food patterns and total ω-3 LCPUFA intake.ResultsFour major food patterns emerged for each sex. For boys these were labeled: “snack foods,” “soft drinks,” “vegetables,” and “pork and meat chops, steak, and mince.” For girls they were labeled: “vegetables,” “take-away,” “tea, coffee, iced coffee drinks” and “canned meals and soup.” Fish consumption bought from take-away outlets was more frequently consumed in the “soft drink” (r = 0.577) and take-away (r = 0.485) food pattern in boys and girls, respectively. In contrast, fish prepared at home was more often consumed in “vegetables” in both boys (r = 0.018) and girls (r = 0.106), as well as in the “pork and meat chops, steak and mince” food pattern in boys (r = 0.060). There was a trend that in boys, the “vegetables” group discriminated children who consumed ω-3 LCPUFA levels similar to adequate intakes (AI) (P = 0.067), whereas in girls, the take-away food pattern discriminated for being a fish consumer (P = 0.060).ConclusionsDietary patterns associated with a high consumption of vegetables and “take-aways” food that include meat and fish are likely to positively influence dietary ω-3 LCPUFA intake in Australian children.     

PCB in interiors - a relevant health risk?

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were manufactured between 1929 and 1989. Due to their great chemical persistence, these substances have been used for many different purposes. These chemical properties, however, caused PCB to accumulate in the food chain and resulted in background exposure of the general population. PCB has also been used as plasticizer for sealants in prefabricated buildings, thus causing problems to the present date. At the end of the 90-ties in a school in Nuremberg, Germany, elevated PCB concentrations were measured in indoor air. Some of these results were higher than 3,000 ng/m(3) which means decontamination according to the German "PCB directive". Press coverage made these results a matter of public debate, so that teachers, school children and parents were highly worried because of possible health effects. The Bavarian Minister for Health, Nutrition and Consumer Protection asked us to examine school children and teachers with regard to their internal PCB exposure and health complaints. A group of school children from a non-contaminated school served as controls. For the determination of PCB levels the plasma samples were blinded before analysis. Lower chlorinated PCB (PCB 28, 52, 101) were detected more often and in higher concentrations in plasma samples of school children of the contaminated school compared to the controls. The plasma levels of the higher chlorinated PCBs (PCB 138, 153, 180) did not show similar differences between exposed and non-exposed school children. The relative PCB doses additionally taken up in the contaminated school were less then 5 % of the background exposure of the children. That is why it could finally be concluded that no appreciable additional health risk may result from inhalation of PCB contaminated indoor air in this school. Due to the design, performance and interpretation of this study, including representatives of parents and teachers, these results were widely accepted by most of the parents who initially had been very concerned about possible health effects.