不同细胞浓度种植于脱细胞血管基质上的细胞生长方式*☆

背景：对于组织工程血管而言,如何在平滑肌细胞层上成功获得致密的内皮细胞层是最为关键的。 目的：探索不同细胞种植浓度对构建全生物化组织工程血管的影响。 方法：先将不同浓度(5×105,5×107 L-1)猪血管平滑肌细胞种植在猪脱细胞血管基质上,培养3 d后再将不同浓度(5×105,5×107 L-1)内皮祖细胞接种在平滑肌细胞-血管基质复合体上,构建片状全生物化组织工程材料。 结果与结论：高浓度与低浓度平滑肌细胞在脱细胞血管基质上的细胞生长曲线相似,并且种植在孔板上和在脱细胞基质上的生长曲线亦相似,但低浓度组增殖较慢,覆盖率较低。细胞覆盖率由高到低的顺序为：高浓度内皮祖细胞+含高浓度平滑肌细胞的脱细胞基质>高浓度内皮祖细胞+含低浓度平滑肌细胞的脱细胞基质>低浓度内皮祖细胞+含高浓度平滑肌细胞的脱细胞基质>低浓度内皮祖细胞+含低浓度平滑肌细胞的脱细胞基质,且高浓度内皮祖细胞在脱细胞基质上可形成较为致密的细胞层,呈现出铺路石样生长方式。说明提高细胞接种浓度有利于其在材料表面快速形成致密的细胞层。     

生物组织工程血管的体外构建及其生物力学特性的研究

目的:探索生物组织工程血管(TEBV)的体外构建,观察血管壁形成过程中血管平滑肌细胞的变化,检测TEBV的生物力学特性,为构建理想的临床血管替代物提供资料。方法采用酶消化法制备猪颈总动脉脱细胞支架,再种植犬胸主动脉的平滑肌细胞,体外培养4周,分别于2周和4周取材作形态结构观察和平滑肌肌动蛋白-α(SMA)、金属蛋白酶-2(MMP-2)及血小板衍生生长因子-AA(PDGF-AA)的免疫组化染色并作图象分析。将幼年犬和成年犬的胸主动脉作对照。用INSTRON1122型万能电子强力仪检测TEBV的断裂强度、应力应变关系和松弛试验。结果体外培养2周和4周,血管平滑肌细胞大量增殖并迁移至支架全层,细胞间出现桥粒、缝隙连接。TEBV培养2周和4周,SMA的表达高于幼年犬,但明显低于成年犬;PDGF-AA的表达低于幼年犬,但明显高于成年犬;MMP-2高于成年犬,培养4周时MMP-2的表达接近幼年犬。TEBV的应力应变曲线呈典型的粘弹性特征,松弛应力和断裂强度均与生理血管相似。结论生物组织工程血管体外构建中平滑肌细胞分泌PDGF-AA、SMA的表达逐渐减少,平滑肌细胞由收缩表型逐渐转变为合成表型,大量增殖和分泌胶原,有细胞连接形成;同时MMP-2分泌增加,细胞发生迁移,重建TEBV的管壁结构,且血管壁的生物力学特性逐渐接近于生理血管。     

细胞在小口径组织工程血管中的抗钙化作用

背景：小口径组织工程血管的远期结果研究极少,尚未见到研究组织工程血管分子水平、离子水平远期结果和平滑肌细胞与钙化关系的报道。 目的：利用脱细胞猪股动脉基质作为支架和犬血管壁细胞作为种子细胞体外构建小口径组织工程血管,植入种子细胞供体犬股动脉部位6个月,观察植入物中层平滑肌细胞与钙化的关系。 方法：12只实验犬被随机分为支架组(n=6)和再细胞化组(n=6),自体股动脉被作为对照组;支架组犬接受猪股动脉经脱细胞后的基质支架植入双侧股动脉,再细胞化组犬接受受体血管壁细胞共同培养、联合种植于脱细胞的猪股动脉基质并体外预适应后植入血管壁细胞供体双侧股动脉位置;6个月后测定植入物和对照组股动脉组织钙含量、平滑肌密度和病理学变化。 结果与结论：小口径组织工程血管植入后6个月检查见2组植入物无明显狭窄和扩张,扫描电镜示内表面均已完全内皮化,有管壁僵硬和局部钙化斑块形成,以上改变以支架组植入物更明显。支架组管道组织钙含量显著高于再细胞化组和自体股动脉(P < 0.01),再细胞化组植入物组织钙含量亦显著高于自体股动脉(P < 0.01);病理学检查示再细胞化组植入物平滑肌密度高于支架组(P < 0.01),再细胞化组和支架组植入物平滑肌密度均低于对照组(P < 0.01);超声检查见2组管道植入术后即刻与6个月后舒缩幅度较邻近自体股动脉舒缩幅度小,有部分管道无舒缩功能。结果提示,猪股动脉常规脱细胞方去获得的基质作为支架体外构建组织工程血管时,平滑肌细胞难于迁移至支架中层,中层平滑肌密度低,植入体内6个月后中层平滑肌细胞密度仍低,平滑肌细胞有抗血管钙化作用。     

改进构建后的全生物化组织工程血管的组织结构与生物力学特性

目的改进体外构建的生物化组织工程血管(TEBV),研究其生物力学特性,获得能承载生理血流力学作用的血管替代物。方法用酶消化法制备猪颈总动脉脱细胞支架,加压灌注结合散点注射种植犬胸主动脉平滑肌细胞(VSMC),用自制的血管自动旋转流体培养系统培养3周,随后再用加压灌注法种植犬胸主动脉内皮细胞(EC),继续培养至4周,取材做HE染色。光镜和电镜观察VSMC及EC在支架内的生长情况。用力学测试仪器检测TEBV的应力-应变关系、拉伸弹性回复率以及最大断裂强度和长度。结果在血管自动旋转流体培养系统,VSMC种植3周在中膜层已经大量均匀分布,EC种植7天后已形成连续完整的EC单层;而应用单独的加压灌注法VSMC种植3周时仍不能均匀分布,EC种植1周后仍分布不均匀,未能形成连续的EC单层。TEBV培养至第4周,中膜层有大量VSMC生长,内膜层则形成连续的EC单层;透射电镜下可见VSMC、EC亚微结构与生理状态的细胞结构相似,可见缝隙连接等细胞连接方式,VSMC可产生新的胶原蛋白。扫描电镜可见EC在支架上生长良好,细胞轮廓清晰,形成连续的单层。力学特性检测结果显示:TEBV的粘弹性、拉伸弹性回复率以及最大断裂强度均接近生理血管。结论血管自动旋转流体培养系统在脱细胞血管支架上联合种植VSMC和EC,有利于种子细胞在支架腔面和管壁内均匀生长,改进了TEBV的组织结构。改进构建的TEBV生物力学特性接近生理血管,将有利于TEBV更好地承载血流动力学的作用。     

组织工程血管构建的研究进展

构建组织工程血管是解决临床血管移植物短缺的最好方法。本文概述了组织工程血管的研究简史，组织工程血管构建方法。重点讨论了非降解材料和降解材料为支架构建的组织工程血管及全生物化组织工程血管的构建方法和优缺点，并初步讨论了组织工程血管构建的力学问题。组织工程血管构建的主要研究方向为在模拟体内力学环境下构建全生物化组织工程血管。     

脂肪间充质干细胞分化为内皮细胞并体外构建组织工程心脏瓣膜

背景：组织工程心脏瓣膜是利用组织工程技术将种子细胞种植于瓣膜支架上所构建的一种人工瓣膜,目前国内外研究主要集中于种子细胞来源及支架选择上。 目的：探讨人脂肪间充质干细胞体外向内皮细胞诱导分化后的细胞作为种子细胞,脱细胞猪主动脉瓣膜作为支架体外构建组织工程心脏瓣膜的可行性。 方法：利用吸脂术采集脂肪组织,分离、培养脂肪间充质干细胞,流式细胞仪鉴定细胞表型;免疫细胞化学方法及RT-PCR检测细胞分化标志物;应用Triton X-100联合胰蛋白酶的方法制备脱细胞猪主动脉瓣支架,将体外培养扩增的诱导分化后的内皮细胞种植于支架上构建组织工程心脏瓣膜,光镜及电镜下观察组织工程心脏瓣膜的组织学结构。 结果与结论：脂肪组织分离培养的脂肪间充质干细胞向内皮细胞诱导分化后表达CD31、CD34、CD144、Ⅷ因子和内皮型一氧化氮合成酶等内皮细胞特异性抗原;脱细胞猪主动脉瓣膜支架脱细胞完全,弹力纤维及胶原纤维保持完整;构建的组织工程心脏瓣膜可见支架上排列连续的单细胞层。提示脂肪间充质干细胞在体外向内皮细胞诱导分化后已初步具有内皮细胞功能,在脱细胞猪主动脉瓣膜支架上生长良好,可以在体外初步构建组织工程心脏瓣膜。     

小口径组织工程血管在羊体内的远期结果

背景：对小口径组织工程血管的研究至今仍主要集中于体外构建上,体内远期结果的研究少有报道。 目的：观察脱细胞猪股动脉支架和绵羊骨髓间质干细胞体外构建的小口径组织工程血管间置于骨髓间质干细胞供体绵羊体内12个月后组织学改变。 方法：将12只成年绵羊随机分为支架组和再细胞化组,支架组将猪股动脉脱细胞后间置于绵羊右侧股动脉;再细胞化组将体外诱导培养的绵羊骨髓间质干细胞种植于脱细胞猪股动脉支架中,经过体外预适应所构建的小口径组织工程血管(直径< 6 mm)间置于骨髓间质干细胞供体绵羊左侧股动脉;将12只绵羊的自体股动脉设为对照组。12个月后切取支架组和再细胞化组的植入物及邻近受体股动脉,行苏木精-伊红染色和扫描电镜检查,观察植入物和对照组股动脉内皮细胞及中层平滑肌细胞密度,采用邻甲酚酞络合酮法测定2组植入小口径组织工程血管和受体股动脉组织的钙含量。 结果与结论：支架组和再细胞化组植入后12个月内管腔均通畅,无明显管道扩张与狭窄,无腔内血栓形成,无管壁明显增厚等改变,管道内表面均已内皮化。但2组植入物管壁均有僵硬和搏动性减弱,尤以支架组植入物管壁僵硬更明显;支架组植入物管道组织钙含量最高(P < 0.01);支架组和再细胞化组管道中层平滑肌细胞密度均低于对照组(P < 0.01)。与支架组植入物相比,再细胞化组植入物组织钙含量较低(P < 0.05),中层平滑肌细胞密度较高(P < 0.01)。说明利用脱细胞猪股动脉支架体外构建小口径组织工程血管时,提高中层平滑肌细胞密度有助于改善小口径组织工程血管的远期功能。     

脱细胞血管基质材料同种异体移植10个月研究*☆

背景：异体血管移植之所以至今未能在临床应用,关键是异体组织抗原性排斥反应的难题未能得到解决。 目的：制备动脉脱细胞血管基质,探讨脱细胞血管异体移植的可行性。 方法：采用不同去垢剂(1%Triton X-100、1%SDS)多步骤对犬血管进行脱细胞处理,通过组织学和力学观测,建立犬动脉血管脱细胞的方法;并进行脱细胞血管的异体移植。 结果与结论：经胰蛋白酶、低渗溶液和去垢剂Triton X-100、SDS等多步骤处理,犬颈总动脉血管的细胞基本脱除,细胞外基质保持完好,血管的弹性、韧性保存较好;用该法制备的犬颈总动脉(直径约4.0 mm)进行异体移植,经10个月观察,4/5通畅。提示经去垢剂Triton X-100、SDS加低渗溶液、胰蛋白酶和蛋白酶抑制剂处理的多步法,可以脱除血管的细胞成分,细胞外基质和力学特性保持完好,是一种较好的方法;用该法制备的犬颈总动脉可以直接进行异体移植,是一可选择的血管移植材料。 关键词：动脉血管;犬;脱细胞;同种异体移植;血管基质 doi:10.3969/j.issn.1673-8225.2012.12.014     

体内环境培养的小口径组织工程血管

背景:人造血管是临床组织修复领域广泛应用的重要器官,但小口径人造血管易于栓塞、难以长期保持通畅,而组织工程血管虽有永久替代作用,培养时间长,不符合血管修复的临床实际。寻找既能及时修复血管、恢复血运,又能在体内形成生物性血管保持长期通畅,是最理想的血管修复重建方法。目的:观察以改性猪小肠黏膜下层组织为支架,在体内血流条件下培养小口径组织工程血管的可行性。方法:自犬隐动脉分离出血管内皮细胞、平滑肌细胞,与胶原蛋白凝胶均匀混合,分别种植于小肠黏膜下层膜表面,包绕3mm聚乙烯管制成30个3层管状支架,植入犬股动脉缺损处进行桥接吻合为实验组;植入犬皮下组织为对照组。术后进行彩超、组织学检测评价血管的形成过程和免疫组化鉴定。结果与结论:术后12周,实验组14个血管支架保持通畅,有明显的血管生物结构形成,种子细胞生长增殖良好,管腔有完整内皮细胞覆盖,平滑肌细胞形态、分布良好;对照组管腔结构不完整,种子细胞增殖弱,腔面无内皮细胞覆盖。结果表明通过体内组织工程技术可在血流条件下培养形成小口径组织工程血管。     

骨髓间充质干细胞构建组织工程化小口径血管

目的采用在动物体外构建初级组织工程化血管、体内强化的方法,探讨构建小口径组织工程化血管的可能性.方法体外培养骨髓间充质干细胞(BMSC),用含全反式维甲酸(AT-RA)、双丁酰环磷酸腺苷(db-cAMP)的DMEM-LG培养液和含血管内皮细胞生长因子(VEGF)的培养液诱导BMSC分别向血管平滑肌样细胞和血管内皮样细胞分化.免疫荧光观察平滑肌样细胞β肌动蛋白的表达和内皮样细胞vWF的表达.电镜观察超微结构的改变.诱导的血管平滑肌样细胞和血管内皮样细胞,分层种植于胶原包埋聚乙醇酸(PGA)的复合支架表面,将细胞和支架复合体种植于动物皮下,于植入后第4、8周再次麻醉动物,取出植入皮下的组织工程化血管,行组织学检查、压力实验及免疫荧光检查.结果诱导14 d后,BMSC能够分化为血管平滑肌样细胞和血管内皮样细胞:β肌动蛋白和vWF呈阳性表达,电镜证实细胞出现了相应的形态学改变.人工血管组织学观察见管壁结构清晰.单纯支架组可承受100～150 mm Hg(1mm Hg=0.133 kPa)的血管腔内压力,实验组则均可承受200mm Hg的血管腔内压力不破裂.实验组皮下培养8周Brdu标记细胞的免疫荧光结果显示部分细胞核呈现明亮的黄绿色荧光.结论以动物皮下为生物反应器可构建出组织工程化血管,其大体结构和天然血管相似.     

脱细胞技术在组织工程血管中的应用进展

将天然血管经过脱细胞处理得到的脱细胞血管,被认为是一种具有广阔应用前景的组织工程血管支架材料.截至目前,细胞外基质(ECM)支架的制备方法仍缺乏统一标准.脱细胞方法的选择取决于组织来源和基质支架的用途,尤其对于脱细胞血管等需要长期承受血流冲击的基质支架材料来说,脱细胞方案的选择至关重要.细胞清除效率和细胞外基质支架的性...     

Mechano-active tissue engineering of vascular smooth muscle using pulsatile perfusion bioreactors and elastic PLCL scaffolds

Blood vessels are subjected in vivo to mechanical forces in a form of radial distention, encompassing cyclic mechanical strain due to the pulsatile nature of blood flow. Vascular smooth muscle (VSM) tissues engineered in vitro with a conventional tissue engineering technique may not be functional, because vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) cultured in vitro typically revert from a contractile phenotype to a synthetic phenotype. In this study, we hypothesized that pulsatile strain and shear stress stimulate VSM tissue development and induce VSMCs to retain the differentiated phenotype in VSM engineering in vitro. To test the hypothesis, rabbit aortic smooth muscle cells (SMCs) were seeded onto rubber-like elastic, three-dimensional PLCL [poly(lactide-co-caprolactone), 50:50] scaffolds and subjected to pulsatile strain and shear stress by culturing them in pulsatile perfusion bioreactors for up to 8 weeks. As control experiments, VSMCs were cultured on PLCL scaffolds statically. The pulsatile strain and shear stress enhanced the VSMCs proliferation and collagen production. In addition, a significant cell alignment in a direction radial to the distending direction was observed in VSM tissues exposed to radial distention, which is similar to that of native VSM tissues in vivo, whereas VSMs in VSM tissues engineered in the static condition randomly aligned. Importantly, the expression of SM alpha-actin, a differentiated phenotype of SMCs, was upregulated by 2.5-fold in VSM tissues engineered under the mechano-active condition, compared to VSM tissues engineered in the static condition. This study demonstrates that tissue engineering of VSM tissues in vitro by using pulsatile perfusion bioreactors and elastic PLCL scaffolds leads to the enhancement of tissue development and the retention of differentiated cell phenotype.     

Enhancing the biological performance of synthetic polymeric materials by decoration with engineered, decellularized extracellular matrix

Materials based on synthetic polymers can be extensively tailored in their physical properties but often suffer from limited biological functionality. Here we tested the hypothesis that the biological performance of 3D synthetic polymer-based scaffolds can be enhanced by extracellular matrix (ECM) deposited by cells in vitro and subsequently decellularized. The hypothesis was tested in the context of bone graft substitutes, using polyesterurethane (PEU) foams and mineralized ECM laid by human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSC). A perfusion-based bioreactor system was critically employed to uniformly seed and culture hMSC in the scaffolds and to efficiently decellularize (94% DNA reduction) the resulting ECM while preserving its main organic and inorganic components. As compared to plain PEU, the decellularized ECM-polymer hybrids supported the osteoblastic differentiation of newly seeded hMSC by up-regulating the mRNA expression of typical osteoblastic genes (6-fold higher bone sialoprotein; 4-fold higher osteocalcin and osteopontin) and increasing calcium deposition (6-fold higher), approaching the performance of ceramic-based materials. After ectopic implantation in nude mice, the decellularized hybrids induced the formation of a mineralized matrix positively immunostained for bone sialoprotein and resembling an immature osteoid tissue. Our findings consolidate the perspective of bioreactor-based production of ECM-decorated polymeric scaffolds as off-the-shelf materials combining tunable physical properties with the physiological presentation of instructive biological signals.     

Review: advances in vascular tissue engineering using protein-based biomaterials

The clinical need for improved blood vessel substitutes, especially in small-diameter applications, drives the field of vascular tissue engineering. The blood vessel has a well-characterized structure and function, but it is a complex tissue, and it has proven difficult to create engineered tissues that are suitable for widespread clinical use. This review is focused on approaches to vascular tissue engineering that use proteins as the primary matrix or "scaffold" material for creating fully biological blood vessel replacements. In particular, this review covers four main approaches to vascular tissue engineering: 1) cell-populated protein hydrogels, 2) cross-linked protein scaffolds, 3) decellularized native tissues, and 4) self-assembled scaffolds. Recent advances in each of these areas are discussed, along with advantages of and drawbacks to these approaches. The first fully biological engineered blood vessels have entered clinical trials, but important challenges remain before engineered vascular tissues will have a wide clinical effect. Cell sourcing and recapitulating the biological and mechanical function of the native blood vessel continue to be important outstanding hurdles. In addition, the path to commercialization for such tissues must be better defined. Continued progress in several complementary approaches to vascular tissue engineering is necessary before blood vessel substitutes can achieve their full potential in improving patient care.     

Novel porous aortic elastin and collagen scaffolds for tissue engineering

Decellularized vascular matrices are used as scaffolds in cardiovascular tissue engineering because they retain their natural biological composition and three-dimensional (3-D) architecture suitable for cell adhesion and proliferation. However, cell infiltration and subsequent repopulation of these scaffolds was shown to be unsatisfactory due to their dense collagen and elastic fiber networks. In an attempt to create more porous structures for cell repopulation, we selectively removed matrix components from decellularized porcine aorta to obtain two types of scaffolds, namely elastin and collagen scaffolds. Histology and scanning electron microscopy examination of the two scaffolds revealed a well-oriented porous decellularized structure that maintained natural architecture of the aorta. Quantitative DNA analysis confirmed that both scaffolds were completely decellularized. Stress-strain analysis demonstrated adequate mechanical properties for both elastin and collagen scaffolds. In vitro enzyme digestion of the scaffolds suggested that they were highly biodegradable. Furthermore, the biodegradability of collagen scaffolds could be controlled by crosslinking with carbodiimides. Cell culture studies showed that fibroblasts adhered to and proliferated on the scaffold surfaces with excellent cell viability. Fibroblasts infiltrated about 120 microm into elastin scaffolds and about 40 microm into collagen scaffolds after 4 weeks of rotary cell culture. These results indicated that our novel aortic elastin and collagen matrices have the potential to serve as scaffolds for cardiovascular tissue engineering.     

Effect of bone extracellular matrix synthesized in vitro on the osteoblastic differentiation of marrow stromal cells

Alternative materials for bone grafts are gaining greater importance in dentistry and orthopaedics, as the limitations of conventional methods become more apparent. We are investigating the generation of osteoinductive matrix in vitro by culturing cell/scaffold constructs for tissue engineering applications. The main strategy involves the use of a scaffold composed of titanium (Ti) fibers seeded with progenitor cells. In this study, we investigated the effect of extracellular matrix (ECM) laid down by osteoblastic cells on the differentiation of marrow stromal cells (MSCs) towards osteoblasts. Primary rat MSCs were harvested from bone marrow, cultured in dexamethasone containing medium and seeded directly onto the scaffolds. Constructs were grown in static culture for 12 days and then decellularized by rapid freeze-thaw cycling. Decellularized scaffolds were re-seeded with pre-cultured MSCs at a density of 2.5 x 10(5) cells/construct and osteogenicity was determined according to DNA, alkaline phosphatase, calcium and osteopontin analysis. DNA content was higher for cells grown on decellularized scaffolds with a maximum content of about 1.3 x 10(6) cells/construct. Calcium was deposited at a greater rate by cells grown on decellularized scaffolds than the constructs with only one seeding on day-16. The Ti/MSC constructs showed negligible calcium content by day-16, compared with 213.2 (+/- 13.6) microg/construct for the Ti/ECM/MSC constructs cultured without any osteogenic supplements after 16 days. These results indicate that bone-like ECM synthesized in vitro can enhance the osteoblastic differentiation of MSCs.     

Use of omentum as an in vivo cell culture system in tissue engineering

Many modifications of in vitro culture techniques have been applied to promote tissue formation, resulting in limitations. Because the omentum is composed of lobes of adipose tissue with abundant blood vessels and has been used for organ reconstruction, we used the omentum as an in vivo culture system to promote cellular proliferation upon the scaffold. Two kinds of autogenous cells, oral epithelial cells and rib chondrocytes, obtained from canine were isolated and then seeded on porous poly-lactic-glycolic acid scaffolds of a pre-determined shape and size. Comparison was performed in two groups. In Group 1, cell-polymer constructs were cultured in vitro for 2 weeks, and in group 2, cell-polymer constructs were cultured in vitro for 1 week following the same protocol as group 1 but were then implanted into the omentum of same canines for the next week. We performed histologic analysis of tissue formation between the two groups. In group 1, seeded cells were presented spatially along the porous polymer surface only. However, in group 2, the cell-polymer constructs maintained their original dimensions and showed formation of a multicell layered structure with abundant blood vessels. We concluded that the use of the omentum as an in vivo culture medium offers possibilities as an efficient and effective method for tissue engineering with greater vascularization and more consistent cell spacing throughout the construct.     

Engineering three-dimensional bone tissue in vitro using biodegradable scaffolds: investigating initial cell-seeding density and culture period

New three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds for bone tissue engineering have been developed throughout which bone cells grow, differentiate, and produce mineralized matrix. In this study, the percentage of cells anchoring to our polymer scaffolds as a function of initial cell seeding density was established; we then investigated bone tissue formation throughout our scaffolds as a function of initial cell seeding density and time in culture. Initial cell seeding densities ranging from 0.5 to 10 x 10(6) cells/cm(3) were seeded onto 3D scaffolds. After 1 h in culture, we determined that 25% of initial seeded cells had adhered to the scaffolds in static culture conditions. The cell-seeded scaffolds remained in culture for 3 and 6 weeks, to investigate the effect of initial cell seeding density on bone tissue formation in vitro. Further cultures using 1 x 10(6) cells/cm(3) were maintained for 1 h and 1, 2, 4, and 6 weeks to study bone tissue formation as a function of culture period. After 3 and 6 weeks in culture, scaffolds seeded with 1 x 10(6) cells/cm(3) showed similar tissue formation as those seeded with higher initial cell seeding densities. When initial cell seeding densities of 1 x 10(6) cells/cm(3) were used, osteocalcin immunolabeling indicative of osteoblast differentiation was seen throughout the scaffolds after only 2 weeks of culture. Von Kossa and tetracycline labeling, indicative of mineralization, occurred after 3 weeks. These results demonstrated that differentiated bone tissue was formed throughout 3D scaffolds after 2 weeks in culture using an optimized initial cell density, whereas mineralization of the tissue only occurred after 3 weeks. Furthermore, after 6 weeks in culture, newly formed bone tissue had replaced degrading polymer.