Surveillance of Bacterial Meningitis,Ethiopia, 2012–2013

Among 139 patients with suspected bacterial meningitis in Ethiopia, 2012–2013, meningococci (19.4%) and pneumococci (12.9%) were the major disease-causing organisms. Meningococcal serogroups detected were A (n = 11), W (n = 7), C (n = 1), and X (n = 1). Affordable, multivalent meningitis vaccines for the African meningitis belt are urgently needed.     

Estimating the economic burden of pneumococcal meningitis and pneumonia in northern Ghana in the African meningitis belt post-PCV13 introduction

BackgroundGhana introduced 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) into the routine infant immunization program in 2012, using a three-dose primary series without a booster. Despite ≥ 88% reported three-dose vaccination coverage since 2013, PCV13-type pneumococcal meningitis outbreaks have occurred. We estimated the ongoing economic burden of PCV13-type pneumococcal meningitis and pneumonia in northern Ghana, an area within the African meningitis belt with seasonal increases of pneumococcal meningitis post-PCV13 introduction, to inform PCV13 vaccination policy.MethodsWe performed a cross-sectional survey among patients with pneumonia or meningitis at three hospitals in northern Ghana to determine patient-level costs (direct medical and nonmedical, indirect patient and caregiver costs) incurred in household, outpatient, and inpatient settings. Pneumonia burden was estimated using 2017–2018 administrative records. Pneumococcal meningitis burden was estimated using 2017–2018 case-based surveillance data. Economic burden was reported in 2019 U.S. dollars ($) from the societal perspective.ResultsFor an area with a total population of 5,068,521, our model estimated 6,441 PCV13-type pneumonia cases and 286 PCV13-type meningitis cases occurred in a typical year post-PCV13. In the base case scenario, the total economic burden was $5,230,035 per year ($777 per case). By age group, cost per PCV13-type pneumonia case was $423 (<5 years), $911 (5–14 years), and $784 (≥15 years); cost per PCV13-type meningitis case was $2,128 (<5 years), $3,247 (5–14 years), and $2,883 (≥15 years). Most (78.0–93.4%) of the total societal cost was due to indirect costs related to deaths from PCV13-type diseases.ConclusionsThe estimated economic burden of PCV13-type disease in northern Ghana remains substantial, especially in older children and adults who were expected to have benefited from indirect effects from infant immunization. Additional interventions such as changes in the infant immunization schedule, reactive vaccination, or catch-up PCV13 vaccination may be needed to control remaining vaccine-type disease.     

Cost of providing injectable contraceptives through a community-based social marketing program in Tigray,Ethiopia

ObjectiveTo provide a cost analysis of an injectable contraceptive program combining community-based distribution and social marketing in Tigray, Ethiopia.MethodsWe conducted a cost analysis, modeling the costs and programmatic outcomes of the program's initial implementation in 3 districts of Tigray, Ethiopia. Costs were estimated from a review of program expense records, invoices, and interviews with health workers. Programmatic outcomes include number of injections and couple-year of protection (CYP) provided. We performed a sensitivity analysis on the average number of injections provided per month by community health workers (CHWs), the cost of the commodity, and the number of CHWs trained.ResultsThe average programmatic CYP was US $17.91 for all districts with a substantial range from US $15.48–38.09 per CYP across districts. Direct service cost was estimated at US $2.96 per CYP. The cost per CYP was slightly sensitive to the commodity cost of the injectable contraceptives and the number of CHWs. The capacity of each CHW, measured by the number of injections sold, was a key input that drove the cost per CYP of this model.ConclusionWith a direct service cost of US $2.96 per CYP, this study demonstrates the potential cost of community-based social marketing programs of injectable contraceptives. The findings suggest that the cost of social marketing of contraceptives in rural communities is comparable to other delivery mechanisms with regards to CYP, but further research is needed to determine the full impact and cost-effectiveness for women and communities beyond what is measured in CYP.     

Economic burden of hospital admissions for patients with acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections in the United States

ABSTRACT

Objectives: We estimated the total US hospital costs associated with acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection (ABSSSI) admissions as well as the admissions that may have been potential candidates for outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT).

Methods: We assessed inpatient admissions for ABSSSI from the Premier database (2011–2014), focusing on all admissions of adults with length of stay (LOS) ≥ 1 days and a primary diagnosis of erysipelas, cellulitis/abscess, or wound infection. We performed a detailed analysis of 2014 admissions for patient, treatment, hospital, and economic characteristic variables. Using published selection criteria, we identified a subset of patients admitted in 2014 who may have been potential candidates for OPAT.

Results: We analyzed 277,971 admissions. In 2014, most admissions were for cellulitis without major complications or comorbidities; mean ± SD LOS was 4.0 ± 3.0 days, and total hospital cost per admission was $6400 ± $6874, 54% of which was attributable to room costs. Among 2014 admissions, 14% involved patients with clinical characteristics suggesting that they were consistent with guideline recommendations for exclusive treatment with OPAT. Compared with all admissions in the year, these admissions were of younger patients (aged 50 vs. 55 years), admitted more frequently for cellulitis (90% vs. 70%), with shorter LOS (2.8 ± 1.8 days), and lower mean total hospital cost per admission ($4080 ± $3066).

Conclusions: Admissions for ABSSSI impose a substantial cost to US hospitals, with half of costs attributable to room costs. When extrapolated to all US patients admitted to the hospital for ABSSSI during 2014, had OPAT guidelines been universally followed, admissions may have been reduced by 14%, thereby saving US hospitals $161 million.     

Hospital-based sentinel surveillance for bacterial meningitis in under-five children prior to the introduction of the PCV13 in India

IntroductionA hospital-based sentinel surveillance network for bacterial meningitis was established in India to estimate the burden of bacterial meningitis, and the proportion of major vaccine-preventable causative organisms. This report summarises the findings of the surveillance conducted between March 2012, and September 2016 in eleven hospitals.MethodsWe enrolled eligible children with bacterial meningitis in the age group of one to 59 months. CSF samples were collected and processed for biochemistry, culture, latex agglutination, and real-time PCR. Pneumococcal isolates were serotyped and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility.ResultsAmong 12 941 enrolled suspected meningitis cases, 586 (4.5%) were laboratory confirmed. S. pneumoniae (74.2%) was the most commonly detected pathogen, followed by H. influenzae (22.2%), and N. meningitidis (3.6%). Overall 58.1% of confirmed bacterial meningitis cases were children aged between one, and 11 months. H. influenzae meningitis cases had a high (12.3%) case fatality rate. The serotypes covered in PCV13 caused 72% pneumococcal infections, and the most common serotypes were 14 (18.3%), 6B (12.7%) and 19F (9.9%). Non-susceptibility to penicillin was 57%. Forty-five (43.7%) isolates exhibited multidrug resistance, of which 37 were PCV13 serotype isolates.ConclusionsThe results are representative of the burden of bacterial meningitis among under-five children in India. The findings were useful in rolling out PCV in the National Immunization Program. The non-susceptibility to penicillin and multidrug resistance was an important observation. Timely expansion of PCV across India will significantly reduce the burden of antimicrobial resistance. Continued surveillance is needed to understand the trend after PCV expansion in India.     

乙型脑炎与细菌性脑膜炎临床指征判别分析

目的分析乙型脑炎与细菌性脑膜炎病例实验室诊断与临床指征的特征,为提高疾病监测质量提供依据。方法在广西贵港市进行症候群监测,捕获乙型脑炎、细菌性脑膜炎实验室确诊病例,进行临床体征、实验室常规监测等19项指标的单因素分析和判别分析。结果监测疑似病例535例,捕获实验室确诊乙型脑炎38例和细菌性脑膜炎23例;判别分析结果显示,乙型脑炎预测符合率为84.21%(32/38),细菌性脑膜炎预测符合率为60.87%(14/23),总体预测符合率为75.41%(46/61);抽搐、脑脊液外观改变、脑脊液蛋白升高和葡萄糖减低等是细菌性脑膜炎的特征性临床指征,乙型脑炎则以抽搐为特异性临床指征;血常规白细胞计数和中性粒细胞比例等无明显诊断价值。结论急性脑炎脑膜炎症候群的临床诊断准确率不高,存在一定程度漏报。     

The economic burden of inpatient paediatric care in Kenya: household and provider costs for treatment of pneumonia, malaria and meningitis

Background

Knowledge of treatment cost is essential in assessing cost effectiveness in healthcare. Evidence of the potential impact of implementing available interventions against childhood illnesses in developing countries challenges us to define the costs of treating these diseases. The purpose of this study is to describe the total costs associated with treatment of pneumonia, malaria and meningitis in children less than five years in seven Kenyan hospitals.

Methods

Patient resource use data were obtained from largely prospective evaluation of medical records and household expenditure during illness was collected from interviews with caretakers. The estimates for costs per bed day were based on published data. A sensitivity analysis was conducted using WHO-CHOICE values for costs per bed day.

Results

Treatment costs for 572 children (pneumonia = 205, malaria = 211, meningitis = 102 and mixed diagnoses = 54) and household expenditure for 390 households were analysed. From the provider perspective the mean cost per admission at the national hospital was US $95.58 for malaria, US $177.14 for pneumonia and US $284.64 for meningitis. In the public regional or district hospitals the mean cost per child treated ranged from US $47.19 to US $81.84 for malaria and US $54.06 to US $99.26 for pneumonia. The corresponding treatment costs in the mission hospitals were between US $43.23 to US $88.18 for malaria and US $ 43.36 to US $142.22 for pneumonia. Meningitis was treated for US $ 189.41 at the regional hospital and US $ 201.59 at one mission hospital. The total treatment cost estimates were sensitive to changes in the source of bed day costs. The median treatment related household payments within quintiles defined by total household expenditure differed by type of facility visited. Public hospitals recovered up to 40% of provider costs through user charges while mission facilities recovered 44% to 100% of costs.

Conclusion

Treatments cost for inpatient malaria, pneumonia and meningitis vary by facility type, with mission and tertiary referral facilities being more expensive compared to primary referral. Households of sick children contribute significantly towards provider cost through payment of user fees. These findings could be used in cost effectiveness analysis of health interventions.     

Evaluation of pneumococcal meningitis clusters in Burkina Faso and implications for potential reactive vaccination

BackgroundTo better understand how to prevent and respond to pneumococcal meningitis outbreaks in the meningitis belt, we retrospectively examined Burkina Faso’s case-based meningitis surveillance data for pneumococcal meningitis clusters and assessed potential usefulness of response strategies.MethodsDemographic and clinical information, and cerebrospinal fluid laboratory results for meningitis cases were collected through nationwide surveillance. Pneumococcal cases were confirmed by culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or latex agglutination; strains were serotyped using PCR. We reviewed data from 2011 to 2017 to identify and describe clusters of ≥ 5 confirmed pneumococcal meningitis cases per week in a single district. We assessed whether identified clusters met the 2016 WHO provisional pneumococcal meningitis outbreak definition: a district with a weekly incidence of >5 suspected meningitis cases/100,000 persons, >60% of confirmed meningitis cases caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, and >10 confirmed pneumococcal meningitis cases.ResultsTwenty pneumococcal meningitis clusters were identified, with a maximum weekly incidence of 7 cases and a maximum duration of 4 weeks. Most identified clusters (15/20; 75%) occurred before nationwide introduction of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) in October 2013. Most cases were due to serotype 1 (74%), 10% were due to PCV13 serotypes besides serotype 1, and 8 clusters had >1 serotype. While 6 identified clusters had a weekly incidence of >5 suspected cases/100,000 and all 20 clusters had >60% of confirmed meningitis cases due to S. pneumoniae, no cluster had >10 confirmed pneumococcal meningitis cases in a single week.ConclusionsFollowing PCV13 introduction, pneumococcal meningitis clusters were rarely detected, and none met the WHO provisional pneumococcal outbreak definition. Due to the limited cluster size and duration, there were no clear instances where reactive vaccination could have been useful. More data are needed to inform potential response strategies.     

Use of administrative records to assess pneumococcal conjugate vaccine impact on pediatric meningitis and pneumonia hospitalizations in Rwanda

BackgroundOngoing surveillance is critical to assessing pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) impact over time. However, robust prospective studies are difficult to implement in resource-poor settings. We evaluated retrospective use of routinely collected data to estimate PCV impact in Rwanda.MethodsWe collected data from admission registers at five district hospitals on children age <5 years admitted for suspected meningitis and pneumonia during 2002–2012. We obtained clinical and laboratory data on meningitis from sentinel surveillance at the national reference hospital in Kigali. We developed multivariable logistic regression models to estimate PCV effectiveness (VE) against severe pneumonia and probable bacterial meningitis and Poisson models to estimate absolute rate reductions. Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine was introduced in January 2002, PCV7 in April 2009 and PCV13 in August 2011.ResultsAt the district hospitals, the severe pneumonia and suspected meningitis hospitalization rates decreased by 70/100,000 and 11/100,000 children for 2012 compared to baseline, respectively. VE against severe pneumonia calculated from logistic regression was 54% (95% CI 42–63%).In Kigali, from 2002 to 2012, annual suspected meningitis cases decreased from 170 pre-PCV7 to 40 post-PCV13 and confirmed pneumococcal meningitis cases from 7 to 0. VE against probable bacterial meningitis was 42% (95% CI −4% to 68%).ConclusionIn a resource-poor African setting, analysis of district hospital admission logbooks and routine sentinel surveillance data produced results consistent with more sophisticated impact studies conducted elsewhere. Our findings support applying this methodology in other settings and confirm the benefits of PCV in Rwanda.     

Hospital and ED charges for spina bifida care in the United States between 2006 and 2014: Over $2 billion annually.

BackgroundMore children with spina bifida (SB) are surviving into adulthood. Unfortunately, little data exist regarding the economic implications of modern SB care.ObjectiveWe examined economic data from two national databases to estimate the annual nationwide hospital and emergency charges of SB from 2006–14.MethodsWe analyzed the 2006–2014 Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) and Nationwide Emergency Department Sample (NEDS). SB patients were defined using ICD-9-CM codes. Demographic and charge data were obtained from each database. Multiple imputation was used to estimate missing data (1.6% for NIS and 22% in NEDS). The principal outcomes were mean, median, and total charges for encounters each year.ResultsThere were 725,646 encounters for individuals with SB between 2006 and 2014. The average age of captured SB patients who were admitted to a hospital or seen in an ER was 29 years. In 2014, the median charge for inpatient encounters was $31,071 (IQR: $15,947, $63,063) and for ER encounters was $2407.02 (IQR: $1321.91, $4211.35). In total, the sum of charges from all SB-related admissions in 2014 was $1,862,016,217 (95% CI: $1.69 billion, $2.03 billion), while the sum of charges of all SB-related ER encounters in 2014 was $176,843,522 (95% CI: $158 million, $196 million). There was a steady increase in charges over the study period.ConclusionCharges for SB-related inpatient and emergency care in the US in 2014 was in excess of $2 billion in contrast to $1.2 billion in 2006, after adjusting for inflation; this is an impressively high figure for a relatively small number of patients.     

Population-based Surveillance for Bacterial Meningitis in China,September 2006–December 2009

During September 2006–December 2009, we conducted active population and sentinel laboratory–based surveillance for bacterial meningitis pathogens, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae type b, in 4 China prefectures. We identified 7,876 acute meningitis and encephalitis syndrome cases, including 6,388 among prefecture residents. A total of 833 resident cases from sentinel hospitals met the World Health Organization case definition for probable bacterial meningitis; 339 of these cases were among children <5 years of age. Laboratory testing confirmed bacterial meningitis in 74 of 3,391 tested cases. The estimated annual incidence (per 100,000 population) of probable bacterial meningitis ranged from 1.84 to 2.93 for the entire population and from 6.95 to 22.30 for children <5 years old. Active surveillance with laboratory confirmation has provided a population-based estimate of the number of probable bacterial meningitis cases in China, but more complete laboratory testing is needed to better define the epidemiology of the disease in this country.     

Identification of Streptococcus suis Meningitis through Population-Based Surveillance,Togo, 2010–2014

During 2010–2014, we enrolled 511 patients with suspected bacterial meningitis into surveillance in 2 districts of northern Togo. We identified 15 persons with Streptococcus suis infection; 10 had occupational contact with pigs, and 12 suffered neurologic sequelae. S. suis testing should be considered in rural areas of the African meningitis belt.     

2000～2002年南宁市细菌性脑膜炎患儿流行病学调查

目的调查了解南宁市5岁以下儿童细菌性脑膜炎的流行病学特点和影响因素。方法由监测区内各医疗点对符合筛检标准的就诊患儿进行流行病学调查,并采集脑脊液和血液进行细菌培养和有关实验室检查,将数据输入数据库进行流行病学统计、分析。结果共调查1272例脑膜炎疑似患儿,检出各种细菌性脑膜炎38例,发病率12．40／10万,病死7例,病死率18．42％。病例发病主要集中在24月龄以下儿童(占97．37％),无性别差异。本病在6、9、12月份高发,在父母文化程度较低的儿童和未送托儿童中高发,与家庭人口数、家中房间数无关联。结论南宁市细菌性脑膜炎多发2岁以下儿童,其发病率与父母文化程度和环境卫生有密切联系;改善环境卫生,提高家长的防病意识是预防细菌性脑膜炎的关键措施。     

血清PCT在小儿细菌性和病毒性脑膜炎鉴别诊断中的应用

目的 探讨血清PCT的检测在小儿细菌性和病毒性脑膜炎鉴别诊断中的应用.方法 选取2015年2月至2016年5月在安康市中医医院儿科住院的细菌性脑膜炎患儿148例为细菌组,病毒性脑膜炎患儿103例为病毒组,同时选取68例进行体检的健康儿童为对照组,所有患儿均在入院第1天空腹状态下及严格无菌操作中抽取静脉血液,比较分析细菌组、病毒组、对照组患儿的血清降钙素原(PCT)、红细胞沉降率(ESR)、白细胞计数(WBC)、C-反应蛋白(CRP),观察细菌组和病毒组患儿病原学检查结果.结果 细菌组患儿的PCT(t=8.756)、CRP(t=53.751)、WBC(t=46.954)水平均高于病毒组,ESR(t=28.049)水平则低于病毒组,差异均有统计学意义(均P<0.05);细菌组PCT(χ2=200.091)、WBC(χ2=31.619)阳性率均高于病毒组,差异均有统计学意义(均P<0.05);随着PCT浓度上升,细菌组患儿人数逐渐增加,病毒组人数逐渐减少,细菌组患儿PCT较高,而病毒组PCT浓度较低,两组患儿PCT水平分布比较,差异有统计学意义(χ2=210.744,P<0.01).结论 当临床中因为各种原因不能及时进行脑脊液检查时,血清PCT的检测在小儿细菌性和病毒性脑膜炎的鉴别诊断中有重要意义,如果再联合检测WBC、ESR和CRP等,则能有效缩短诊断时间,及时采取针对性治疗,值得在临床中进一步观察和选择性推广.     

Incidence and aetiology of bacterial meningitis among children aged 1–59 months in South Asia: systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundBacterial meningitis is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide among children aged 1–59 months. We aimed to describe its burden in South Asia, focusing on vaccine-preventable aetiologies.MethodsWe searched five databases for studies published from January 1, 1990, to April 25, 2017. We estimated incidence and aetiology-specific proportions using random-effects meta-analysis. In secondary analyses, we described vaccine impact and pneumococcal meningitis serotypes.ResultsWe included 48 articles cumulatively reporting 20,707 cases from 1987 to 2013. Mean annual incidence was 105 (95% confidence interval [CI], 53–173) cases per 100,000 children. On average, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) accounted for 13% (95% CI, 8–19%) of cases, pneumococcus for 10% (95% CI, 6–15%), and meningococcus for 1% (95% CI, 0–2%). These meta-analyses had substantial between-study heterogeneity (I² > 78%, P < 0.0001). Among studies reporting only confirmed cases, these three bacteria caused a median of 78% cases (IQR, 50–87%). Hib meningitis incidence declined by 72–83% at sentinel hospitals in Pakistan and Bangladesh, respectively, within two years of implementing nationwide vaccination. On average, PCV10 covered 49% (95% CI, 39–58%), PCV13 covered 51% (95% CI, 40–61%), and PPSV23 covered 74% (95% CI, 67–80%) of pneumococcal meningitis serotypes. Lower PCV10 and PCV13 serotype coverage in Bangladesh was associated with higher prevalence of serotype 2, compared to India and Pakistan.ConclusionsSouth Asia has relatively high incidence of bacterial meningitis among children aged 1–59 months, with vaccine-preventable bacteria causing a substantial proportion. These estimates are likely underestimates due to multiple epidemiological and microbiological factors. Further research on vaccine impact and distribution of pneumococcal serotypes will inform vaccine policymaking and implementation.     

神经外科术后细菌性脑膜炎多指标联合诊断模型的建立

目的 建立神经外科术后细菌性脑膜炎诊断的多指标线性判别模型。方法 回顾性分析2012-2016年某院细菌性脑膜炎（226例）和无菌性脑膜炎患者（255例）的14项实验室检查，将有意义的指标绘制受试者工作曲线（ROC曲线），曲线下面积（AUC）>0.7的项目进行线性回归拟合，建立多指标联合诊断线性判别模型。选取26例脑膜炎患者的数据，验证判别模型的判别能力。结果 两组脑膜炎患者11项指标比较，差异有统计学意义（均P<0.05），其中脑脊液白细胞计数（C-WBC）、脑脊液葡萄糖浓度（C-Glu）、血葡萄糖浓度（B-Glu）、脑脊液血糖比例（C/B-Glu）及脑脊液乳酸（C-Lac）5项指标的AUC均>0.7。通过线性拟合获得判别模型：Y=-0.268×C-Glu+0.127×B-Glu+0.24×C-Lac-0.722×C/B-Glu+0.00000638×C-WBC-0.866，拟合5项指标诊断细菌性脑膜炎的ROC曲线AUC为0.907，灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值与阴性预测值均>80.0%。26例脑膜炎患者的数据验证判别模型效果，结果显示，模型判别的准确率与特异度均较高（90.0%、81.2%），一致率达84.6%。结论 利用多指标联合诊断可以有效地区分细菌性脑膜炎与无菌性脑膜炎，更好地解决细菌性脑膜炎的诊断问题。     

Vaccination with Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine reduces bacterial meningitis in Morocco

Introduction

Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) is a leading cause of bacterial meningitis and pneumonia and can be prevented by Hib vaccine. We conducted a vaccine impact evaluation to support continued use of Hib vaccine in Morocco following introduction in 2007.

Methods

Bacterial meningitis surveillance data from 2004 to 2009 were obtained from 11 sentinel hospitals located in eight provinces and one prefecture in Morocco to examine Hi meningitis reporting for cases aged <5 years. We defined the years of 2004–2006 as the pre-vaccine period and 2008–2009 as the post-vaccine period and compared the mean annual number of confirmed Hi meningitis cases for these time periods using a Chi-square test. We calculated the minimum incidence of Hi meningitis during the evaluation period in Grand Casa Prefecture, where the catchment population could be estimated.

Results

From 2004 to 2009, 1844 suspected meningitis case-patients aged <5 years were reported; 354 (19.2%) were confirmed with bacterial meningitis, including 105 (29.7%) Hi cases. The mean annual number of confirmed Hi meningitis cases decreased by 75%, from 24 in the pre-vaccine period to 6 during the post-vaccine period (p < 0.001). Assuming Hi cases with unknown age were <5 years of age, the estimated minimum incidence of confirmed Hi meningitis in Grand Casa Prefecture decreased by 93%, from 15 cases per 100,000 children in the pre-vaccine period to 1 case per 100,000 children in the post-vaccine period.

Conclusion

Hib vaccine introduction likely significantly reduced the occurrence of Hi meningitis among children aged <5 years at the 11 sentinel hospitals included in this evaluation in Morocco, suggesting that continued use of Hib vaccine in Morocco would be beneficial.     

Linezolid Versus Vancomycin in the Empiric Treatment of Nosocomial Pneumonia: A Cost-Utility Analysis Incorporating Results from the ZEPHyR Trial

ObjectiveTo examine the cost-effectiveness of vancomycin versus linezolid in the empiric treatment of nosocomial pneumonias incorporating results from a recent prospective, double-blind, multicenter, controlled trial in adults with suspected methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nosocomial pneumonia.MethodsA decision-analytic model examining the cost-effectiveness of linezolid versus vancomycin for the empiric treatment of nosocomial pneumonia was created. Publicly available cost, efficacy, and utility data populated relevant model variables. A probabilistic sensitivity analysis varied parameters in 10,000 Monte-Carlo simulations, and univariate sensitivity analyses assessed the impact of model uncertainties and the robustness of our conclusions.ResultsResults indicated that the cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) increased 6% ($22,594 vs. $23,860) by using linezolid versus vancomycin for nosocomial pneumonia. The incremental cost per QALY gained by using linezolid over vancomycin was $6,089, and the incremental cost per life saved was $68,615 with the use of linezolid. Vancomycin dominated linezolid in the subset of patients with documented MRSA. The incremental cost per QALY gained using linezolid if no mortality benefit exists between agents or a 60-day time horizon was analyzed was $19,608,688 and $443,662, respectively.ConclusionsLinezolid may be a cost-effective alternative to vancomycin in the empiric treatment of patients with suspected MRSA nosocomial pneumonia; however, results of our model were highly variable on a number of important variables and assumptions including mortality differences and time frame analyzed.