前列腺癌筛查患者的临床病理特点及其意义

目的 通过分析集团筛查和临床诊断发现的前列腺癌,探讨前列腺癌筛查的临床价值.方法 2000年1月至2008年1月共收治441例前列腺癌患者,分为两组,临床组为门诊收治的前列腺癌患者122例;筛查组为同期23 183名50岁以上男性人群筛查发现的前列腺癌患者319例(均住院治疗);对两组患者年龄、直肠指检阳性率、血清前列腺特异性抗原(PSA)、病理Gleason评分、分型及临床分期和治疗方法等进行比较.结果 筛查组直肠指检阳性率为42.0%,低于临床组的79.5%.筛查组中PSA>20.0 μg/L的比例低于临床组.筛查组的中度分化腺癌占61.8%,高于临床组的29.5%,而低分化腺癌则相反.筛查组低于T2的患者比例为56.1%,T3以上患者比例为43.9%;临床组低于T2的患者比例为25.4%,T3以上患者比例为74.6%.发生局部及远处转移患者,筛查组26.0%,临床组46.0%.临床组根治性前列腺切除术占9.8%;筛查组根治手术占18.2%.结论 人群中筛查前列腺癌可以发现早期局限无症状的前列腺癌.     

Analysis of T1c prostate cancers treated at very low prostate-specific antigen levels

Background

The Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial (PCPT) has challenged the validity of recommended prostate-specific antigen (PSA) thresholds for prostate biopsy (>2.5 ng/ml) given the 17% prostate cancer (pCA) detection rate at PSA of 1.1–2.0. The outcome of patients treated at PSA ≤2.5 is poorly defined, and advantages associated with such an early diagnosis are uncertain.

Objective

Compare the outcome of patients with T1c pCA with pretreatment PSA ≤2.5 and 2.6–4.0.

Design, setting, and participants

Since 1998, 351 patients with clinical stage T1c and PSA ≤4.0 have been treated at our institution; 84 (24%) of those patients had PSA ≤2.5. Clinical information was obtained from a prospective database. Treatment was radical prostatectomy (RP), brachytherapy, and external-beam radiotherapy (EBRT) in 261 (74%), 67 (19%), and 23 (7%) patients, respectively.

Intervention

Definitive therapy for clinically localized pCA.

Measurements

Progression-free probability and pathologic end points.

Results and limitations

No significant differences between the groups were observed in terms of biopsy (18% vs 22%) or specimen Gleason score 7–8 (44% vs 56%), non–organ-confined cancer (11% vs 13%), indolent cancer (34% vs 24%), or 5-yr progression-free probability (89% vs 93%; p > 0.1 for all). More biologically unimportant cancers (defined as pathologically organ-confined and Gleason ≤6) were identified among patients with PSA ≤2.5 (55% vs 41%, p = 0.050), and indolent cancers were three times more frequent than non–organ-confined cancers among these patients (p = 0.003).

Conclusions

The pathologic features and outcome of patients treated at low PSA levels are favorable and similar for patients with PSA ≤2.5 versus 2.6–4.0. However, >50% of the former have potentially biologically unimportant cancer. We failed to identify a therapeutic benefit to the diagnosis of cancers below accepted PSA thresholds for biopsy.     

Extent of prostate-specific antigen contamination in the Spanish section of the European Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer (ERSPC)

OBJECTIVES: The performance of tests outside prostate cancer screening trials (PSA contamination) may affect their statistical power. The present study addressed the extent of PSA contamination in the Spanish section of the European Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer (ERSPC) and its impact on biopsy performance and prostate cancer detection. METHODS: Data linkage was performed to address screening-related interventions outside the study. Four databases were used: (1) Spanish ERSPC database (n=4278), (2) laboratory database with all PSA determinations (n=31,140), (3) database of 1608 prostate biopsies, and (4) records of all prostate cancers (n=819) diagnosed at our centre. PSA contamination, biopsy performance, and cancer detection rates were calculated. RESULTS: Median follow-up time was 6.6 yr. A total of 2201 PSA determinations were performed for 1253 men. Cumulative PSA contamination was 29.3% (17% in the control arm during the first 4 yr). A higher proportion of men undergoing biopsies was found in the screening arm (21.3% vs. 2.9% in the control arm, p<0.0001). Similarly, higher cancer detection rates were found in the screening (4.7% vs. 1.2% in the control arm, p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: In our experience, the PSA contamination rate has increased during the last years, but its impact on biopsy performance and cancer detection in the control arm of the trial is limited and not likely to compromise the statistical power of the ERSPC trial.     

经直肠超声引导下前列腺6点穿刺活检术诊断单纯前列腺特异抗原增高型前列腺癌

目的探讨经直肠超声引导下前列腺6点穿刺活检术诊断单纯前列腺特异性抗原(PSA)增高型前列腺癌的临床应用价值。方法回顾分析84例接受经直肠超声引导下前列腺6点穿刺活检术的患者资料。所有患者直肠指诊及常规超声检查结果均为阴性。根据血清PSA分为4组:A组24例,PSA 4~20ng/ml;B组8例,PSA 21~30ng/ml;C组32例,PSA 31~100ng/ml;D组20例,PSA100ng/ml。结果 84例患者穿刺术后均未出现并发症。49例穿刺病理诊断为前列腺癌(49/84,53.33%),其中A组检出1例(1/49,2.04%),B组检出4例(4/49,8.16%),C组检出24例(24/49,48.98%),D组检出20例(20/49,40.82%)。A、B、C、D组中前列腺穿刺活检阳性率分别为4.17%(1/24)、50.00%(4/8)、75.00%(24/32)、100%(20/20),差异有统计学意义(χ2=47.143,P0.05)。结论经直肠超声引导下前列腺6点穿刺活检术并发症少,对单纯PSA增高型前列腺癌具有较高的阳性率。     

Decision-making about PSA testing and prostate biopsies: a qualitative study embedded in a primary care randomised trial

OBJECTIVES: The overall aim was to increase understanding of men's decision-making about prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing and subsequent biopsy. METHODS: This qualitative interview study was nested within the primary care-based Prostate Testing for Cancer and Treatment (ProtecT) trial in nine United Kingdom areas (ISRCTN number: 20141297). Fifty-eight men aged 50-69 yr (mean: 62 yr), accepting (n=14) or not responding (n=7) to invitations for PSA testing and accepting (n=24) or refusing (n=13) prostate biopsy were interviewed. RESULTS: In this study, men accepting PSA testing and biopsy reported positively on their experiences, regardless of the final outcome. PSA testing was considered routine and biopsy acceptable to most men. Men both responding and not responding to PSA testing often perceived themselves to be at low risk for prostate cancer. Men refusing biopsy also tended to perceive themselves to be at low risk and many were anxious about the test itself. Misunderstandings about the relationship between urinary symptoms and risk of prostate cancer were identified. CONCLUSIONS: Most men found PSA testing and biopsy acceptable, but perceptions of risk were not always accurate and the provision of more tailored information may help facilitate informed decision-making.     

前列腺癌集团检诊对临床前列腺癌诊断的影响

目的　探讨前列腺癌集团检诊对临床前列腺癌诊断的影响。　方法　总结 1996至2 0 0 1年集团检诊发现的 67例前列腺癌和 1986至 2 0 0 1年长春各大医院诊治的 3 58例前列腺癌患者资料 ,从年度及年龄分布、临床分期、血清前列腺特异性抗原 (PSA)含量、病理分级和治疗等方面进行对比分析。　结果　 1999至 2 0 0 1年 3年间年均确诊例数较 1986至 1989年增长 4.7倍。其中集团组B期以下早期癌占 58.2 % ,临床组只占 2 7.9% ,且多为偶发癌 ;转移癌的诊断率集团组低于临床组 ;临床组PSA≥ 2 0ng/ml的比率高于集团组 ,低分化癌的比率高于集团组 ,差异均有统计学意义。集团组行前列腺癌根治术的比率较临床组提高了 15.3 %。　结论　集团检诊可以真正揭示国人前列腺癌的发病现状 ,可明显增加临床前列腺癌特别是早期癌的诊断例数 ,是实现前列腺癌早期诊断与治疗的最佳途径     

血清前列腺特异性抗原及直肠指检与前列腺癌的相关性研究

目的 分析血清PSA、直肠指检(DRE)与前列腺癌检出率、临床分期以及病理分级的相关性. 方法 回顾性分析1997年1月至2010年12月796例PSA、DRE和病理结果完整患者的前列腺穿刺活检资料,采用Spearman相关性研究分析PSA和DRE与前列腺癌相关指标间的关系,进一步将PSA及DRE分组后进行比较. 结果 PSA与前列腺癌检出率、临床分期及病理分级相关(r=0.537,P＜0.0001;r=0.365,P＜0.0001;r=0.556,P＜0.0001);DRE结果与前列腺癌诊断率及病理分级有相关性(r=0.212,P＜0.0001;r=0.126,P=0.02).分组分析显示不同PSA水平组中前列腺癌检出率、前列腺癌分期以及Gleason评分差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).而在相同PSA水平时,只有PSA 10.0 ～ 19.9 μg/L组和20.0～99.9μg/L组中DRE阳性和阴性患者的前列腺癌检出率差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).相同PSA组中不同DRE结果患者的前列腺癌分期以及Gleason评分差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05). 结论 PSA水平与前列腺癌的检出率、肿瘤分期及Gleason评分有显著相关性,DRE结果仅在部分PSA水平患者中影响肿瘤检出率.     

血清PSA含量及前列腺PSA密度与经直肠超声引导下前列腺穿刺活检诊断前列腺癌的关系

目的探讨经直肠超声引导下前列腺穿刺活检术前列腺癌检出率与血清前列腺特异性抗原(PSA)及血清前列腺特异性抗原密度(PSAD)的关系。方法对134例患者行经直肠超声引导下前列腺5区13针系统穿刺活检。根据PSA水平分为PSA≤4ng/ml组(7例)、4ng/mlPSA15ng/ml组(48例)及PSA≥15ng/ml组(79例)。测量并计算前列腺体积(PV)及PSAD,分析前列腺癌检出率及不同PSA、PSAD水平下对前列腺癌的诊断效能。比较前列腺癌与非前列腺癌患者PSA、PV及PSAD的差异。结果前列腺癌总检出率为50.75%(68/134),前列腺患者共68例(前列腺癌组),非前列腺癌患者共66例(非前列腺啊组)。PSA≤4ng/ml、4ng/mlPSA≤15ng/ml及PSA15ng/ml组前列腺癌检出率分别为14.29%(1/7)、20.83%(10/48)及72.15%(57/79),差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。PSA≥4ng/ml时前列腺癌检出率随着PSA值的增高而上升。134例患者PSAD值为(1.09±1.72)ng/(ml·cm3),以PSAD≥0.19ng/(ml·cm3)为截点诊断前列腺癌的敏感度为95.59%(65/68),特异度为51.52%(34/66),阳性预测值67.01%(65/97),阴性预测值为32.99%(32/97)。4ng/mlPSA≤15ng/ml组中,以PSAD≥0.19ng/(ml.cm3)为截点诊断前列腺癌的敏感度为80.00%(8/10),特异度为71.05%(27/38),阳性预测值为42.11%(8/19),阴性预测值为57.89%(11/19)。前列腺癌组PSA及PSAD值均高于非前列腺癌组(P均0.05),PV小于非前列腺癌组(P0.05)。4ng/mlPSA≤15ng/ml组中,前列腺癌与非前列腺癌患者PSA及PV差异均无统计学意义(P均0.05),前列腺癌患者PSAD高于非前列腺癌患者(P0.05)。结论血清PSA及PSAD均与前列腺穿刺活检前列腺癌检出率有关,PSA15ng/ml应行穿刺活检,PSAD对4ng/mlPSA≤15ng/ml的患者是否应行穿刺活检具有指导意义。     

Individualized prostate biopsy strategy for Chinese patients with different prostate-specific antigen levels

Aim： To evaluate the best individualized prostate biopsy strategies for Chinese patients with suspected prostate cancer. Methods： The present study included 221 Chinese patients who underwent transrectal ultrasound guided prostate biopsies for the first time. All patients underwent the same 10-core biopsy protocol. In addition to the Hodge sextant technique, four more biopsies were obtained from the base and middle regions of bilateral peripheral zones. The differences between 10-core and sextant strategies in cancer detection among patients with different prostate specific anitgen （PSA） levels were evaluated. The relationship between PSA level, number of positive biopsy cores and organ-confined cancer rate in prostate cancer patients was also analyzed. Results： The overall prostate cancer detection rate was 40.7% in the 221 patients. The 10-core strategy increased cancer detection by 6.67% （6/90） in our patients （P 〈 0.05）. The increased cancer detection rates decreased significantly when the patient PSA level increased from 0-20 ng/mL to 20.1-50 ng/mL and 〉 50 ng/mL （P 〈 0.01）. The number of positive biopsy cores in prostate cancer patients increased significantly with increasing patient PSA level （P 〈 0.01）. The rate of organ-confined prostate cancer decreased significantly with increasing patient PSA level （P 〈 0.01）. Conclusion： The extended 10- core strategy is recommended for Chinese patients with PSA 〈 20 ng/mL and the sextant strategy is recommended for those with PSA〉 50 ng/mL. For patients with PSA ranging from 20.1 ng/mL to 50 ng/mL, the 10-core strategy should be applied in patients with life expectancy 〉 10 years and the sextant strategy should be applied in those with life expectancy 〈 10 years. （Asian J Androl 2008 Mar; 10： 325-331）     

Population-based screening for prostate cancer by measuring total serum prostate-specific antigen in Iran

OBJECTIVE: To report the results from an Iranian large population-based randomized study of screening using prostate-specific antigen (PSA) to detect prostate cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 3758 Iranian men older than 40 years were mass checked by PSA-based screening. Men with an abnormal digital rectal examination (DRE) and serum total PSA level of greater than 4 ng/mL, underwent transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS)-guided extended prostate biopsy. RESULTS: The PSA value (mean +/- standard deviation, SD) in all men without prostate cancer was 1.6 +/- 1.1 ng/mL and in those with cancer 18 +/- 44.8 ng/mL (P = 0.001). PSA values increased with age. In those aged 40-49, 50-59, 60-69 and > or = 70 years, the mean +/- SD PSA values were 1.3 +/- 0.7, 1.4 +/- 0.8, 1.8 +/- 1 and 2.2 +/- 1.6 ng/mL, respectively. Among the screened men, 323 (8.6%) had a serum PSA concentration greater than 4 ng/mL. Of patients who underwent prostate biopsy (230, 71.2%), 129 (positive predictive value, 56.1%) had prostate cancer. Additionally, nine cancers were detected among 16 patients with PSA of less than 4 ng/mL who had a doubtful DRE finding. The overall cancer detection rate was 3.6%; 1.4% at 40-49, 1.6% at 50-59, 4.2% at 60-69 and 12.9% at >/=70 years. Conventional systematic sextant biopsies, which accounted for six of the 10 cores in our biopsy scheme, detected 98 (71%) of the cancers. CONCLUSIONS: The Iranian male population develops prostate cancer quite commonly if their serum PSA levels are greater than 4.0 ng/mL. In this study, 65.9% of the detected cancers were clinically significant. The conventional systematic sextant technique may be inappropriate for detection of all prostate cancers. The results need to be confirmed in other randomized trials.     

血清PSA密度变化对前列腺癌高危人群的诊断价值

目的:探讨前列腺特异抗原(PSA)、前列腺特异抗原密度(PSAD)变化对前列腺癌高危人群的诊断价值。方法:对初次活检阴性的432例患者进行随访,其中79例重复穿刺活检,确诊前列腺癌27例(34.2%),消化道来源肿瘤1例,BPH25例,前列腺上皮内肿瘤(PIN)13例,慢性前列腺炎13例。对重复活检患者的PSA、PSAD等临床资料进行统计分析。结果:配对t检验显示,良性病变首末次穿刺前PSA、PSAD差异均无统计学意义,而前列腺癌末次穿刺前PSA、PSAD较首次穿刺前升高,差异有统计学意义。以PSA>4ng/ml筛选前列腺癌,其敏感性、特异性、阳性预测值分别为92.5%、17.6%、37.6%,PSA末-PSA首>0筛选前列腺癌的敏感性、特异性、阳性预测值分别为85.2%、41.2%、40.4%;而以PSAD末-PSAD首>0筛选前列腺癌的敏感性、特异性、阳性预测值分别为81.5%、54.9%、48.9%。结论:在前列腺癌高危人群中应该重复穿刺,以减少漏诊;以PSAD动态升高来指导穿刺,可以明显提高阳性率。     

血清PSA、PSAD和PSAT在前列腺穿刺活检中的意义

目的探讨血清前列腺特异性抗原(PSA)、前列腺特异性抗原密度(PSAD)和前列腺移行带特异性抗原密度(PSAT)在前列腺穿刺活检中的意义。方法对192例患者行前列腺穿刺活检,其中PSA≥4ng/ml者184例,PSA<4ng/ml且直肠指诊及经直肠B超有阳性发现者8例。对PSA、PSAD和PSAT与前列腺穿刺活检的关系进行分析。结果192例患者中经前列腺穿刺诊断为前列腺癌(PCa)100例,活检阳性率52.1%,其中8例PSA<4ng/ml者中,活检结果为前列腺横纹肌肉瘤1例,良性前列腺增生7例;93例PSA>20ng/ml者中80例为PCa,活检阳性率86.0%;91例PSA4~20ng/ml者中19例为PCa,活检阳性率20.9%。血清PSA4~20ng/ml患者,PSAD>0.10或PSAT>0.10时,敏感性均为100%,特异性为11.1%或4.2%,阳性预测值为22.9%或21.6%,可避免8.8%(8/91)或3.3%(3/91)阴性穿刺结果。血清PSA4~20ng/ml时,前列腺穿刺阳性组和阴性组PSA分别为(13.2±4.7)和(11.4±4.6)ng/ml(P>0.05);PSAD分别为0.36±0.18和0.19±0.09(P=0.001);PSAT分别为0.67±0.36和0.32±0.18(P=0.000)。血清PSA、PSAD和PSAT的ROC曲线下面积分别为0.613、0.810和0.833,PSAD和PSAT的ROC曲线下面积与PSA比较,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论PSA>20ng/ml时应做前列腺穿刺活检;PSA4~20ng/ml时,PSAD和PSAT对预测患者是否行前列腺穿刺活检有较大帮助。     

经直肠直视下穿刺法在前列腺穿刺活检中的应用

目的探讨经直肠直视下前列腺穿刺活检方法的可行性。方法采用改良的俯卧位前列腺直视下穿刺方法行经直肠前列腺穿刺活检56例。利用庤上黏膜环形缝扎器（PPH）套件中的部分组件,即环形肛管扩张器及镜芯、肛镜缝扎器以协助显露直肠段前列腺。结果经直肠直视下前列腺穿刺活检方法可直视穿刺,穿刺深度和方向易控制。针刺布局规范,患者体位舒适,耐受适应好。无严重并发症发生。穿刺效果良好。结论经直肠直视下俯卧位前列腺穿刺活检方法简便,穿刺准确,值得推广。     

Predictors of subsequent prostate cancer in men with a prostate specific antigen of 2.6 to 4.0 ng/ml and an initially negative biopsy

PURPOSE: Almost 75% of men with a prostate specific antigen (PSA) of 2.6 to 4.0 ng/ml have no evidence of prostate cancer on biopsy. Deciding whether and when to repeat the biopsy is challenging. We determined if patient specific variables might identify men at increased risk for the subsequent detection of prostate cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We analyzed the records of 24,893 men from a community based prostate cancer screening study. Our study group consisted of 1,202 men with PSA 2.6 to 4.0 ng/ml and a previously negative prostate biopsy. Patient specific variables were analyzed for their value in predicting a future diagnosis of prostate cancer. RESULTS: Of 1,011 men with adequate followup 136 (13.5%) were subsequently diagnosed with prostate cancer. Mean followup +/- SD in men without prostate cancer was 72 +/- 36 months. Prostate cancer was subsequently diagnosed in 35% of men with high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (HGPIN) on initial biopsy (p <0.0001), in 18% with abnormal or suspicious digital rectal examination (DRE) (p = 0.02) and 16% with an annual PSA velocity of 0 ng/ml (p = 0.002). Multivariate analysis identified HGPIN, initial PSA 3.6 to 4.0 ng/ml, abnormal DRE, family history of prostate cancer and annual PSA velocity 0 ng/ml as predictors of prostate cancer. CONCLUSIONS: Men with a PSA of 2.6 to 4.0 ng/ml and negative biopsy should be advised to undergo repeat biopsy if they have HGPIN, initial PSA 3.6 to 4.0 ng/ml, abnormal DRE, a family history of prostate cancer or a PSA velocity of 0 ng/ml or greater.     

以前列腺特异抗原水平分组筛查与前列腺穿刺阳性率的关系

目的探讨不同血清前列腺特异抗原(PSA)水平前列腺癌检出情况以及直肠指诊(DRE)、经直肠超声检查(TRUS)、PSA密度(PSAD)等指标对筛查前列腺穿刺活检病例的意义。方法回顾性分析在1996年4月至2002年12月间行TRUS引导前列腺6点系统穿刺活检的634例患者的诊断资料,对各PSA组(≤4.0,4.1~,10.1~和>20.0μg/L组)中前列腺癌的检出率,以及PSA、DRE、TRUS、PSAD等对前列腺癌的预测作用进行t检验、χ2检验和多因素Logistic回归分析。结果PSA≤4.0,4.1~,10.1~和>20.0μg/L各组的前列腺癌检出率分别为11.6%(17/146),26.8%(38/142),39.8%(68/171)和68.6%(120/175)。PSA的敏感性最高(93.0%),特异性低(33.0%);DRE、TRUS等诊断效率较低。随血清PSA水平升高,前列腺癌检出率以及DRE、TRUS的阳性预测值逐渐升高;在PSA4.1~20.0μg/L者中,PSAD对前列腺癌有较大的预测价值(OR=687.09±646.96,P=0.000)。以PSAD≥0.13μg.L-1.cm-3为截点筛查前列腺穿刺病例,可在不明显降低敏感性的基础上,减少阴性穿刺。结论各PSA组国人与欧美等国前列腺癌检出率有较大差别;DRE、TRUS的筛查作用与血清PSA水平有关;按PSA水平分组筛查穿刺病例,可提高前列腺穿刺的阳性率。     

超声引导下经直肠10针前列腺穿刺活检对前列腺癌诊断的研究

目的 探讨超声引导下经直肠10针前列腺穿刺活检术诊断前列腺癌的临床应用价值。方法 回顾性分析104例经直肠10针穿刺活检的可疑前列腺癌患者。在标准6针系统穿刺法基础上改进确定A组穿刺点后,依据前列腺解剖分区,在经直肠B超显示的前列腺冠状切面的两侧外侧区域（B组）及中央区域（C组）增加4针穿刺点,施行前列腺活检,病例标本分别标注送病理学检查。结果 104例患者中42例确诊为前列腺癌,总阳性率为40.4%。其中所设置的A组穿刺位点阳性25例（占总检出阳性的59.5%）,B组位点阳性9例（21.4%）,C组位点阳性8例（19.0%）。假阴性率为4.7%,术后并发症总发生率为15.4%,未出现严重并发症。结论 超声引导下经直肠10针前列腺穿刺活检术安全、可靠,可以作为临床理想的初次前列腺穿刺活检术式之一。     

Relationship among initial serum prostate specific antigen, prostate specific antigen progression and prostate cancer detection at repeat screening visits

PURPOSE: We evaluated the probability of positive serum PSA (3 ng/ml or greater) and CaP detection at annual followup visits in men with negative initial PSA (less than 3 ng/ml) to optimize the re-screening schedule. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data on 5,387 men 45 to 80 years old with negative PSA and no CaP diagnosis at the first screening visit were obtained from the Laval University Prostate Cancer Screening Program database. Accelerated failure time regressions were fitted to time from baseline to positive PSA and to time from positive PSA to CaP detection. The models were combined to estimate the cumulative probability of positive PSA followed by CaP detection at re-screening. RESULTS: The 5-year cumulative probability of detecting CaP at annual visits in men with baseline PSA up to 1.5 ng/ml remained below 0.8%, while it was 1.3%, 4.8% and 8.3% in men with PSA 1.5 to less than 2, 2 to less than 2.5 and 2.5 to less than 3 ng/ml, respectively. Time to positive PSA significantly decreased with increasing baseline PSA and age, while the time between positive PSA and CaP detection depended only on age. Men with PSA below 1.0 ng/ml could wait for 4 to 5 years before being re-tested, while men with PSA between 1.0 and 1.5 ng/ml should be screened every second year and men with PSA 1.5 ng/ml or greater should be screened every year. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed retesting schedule using current PSA and age decreases the number of visits by 38.1%, while delaying the detection of only 2.4% of CaPs that would have been detected using annual PSA testing.