Skin grafts used in combination with free flaps for intraoral oncological reconstruction

Surgeons have relied less on skin grafts for intraoral reconstruction by extending free flap tissue onto adjacent areas that could be potentially skin grafted. Split-thickness skin grafts provide thin, reliable epithelial coverage to tissue beds that can be grafted without requiring additional flap tissue. The combined use of split-thickness skin grafts with free tissue transfer may be advantageous in select situations. Four patients underwent intraoral tumor resection with immediate reconstruction using free tissue transfer and split-thickness skin grafts. Skin grafting the tongue component of combined hemiglossectomy and floor-of-mouth (FOM) defects rather than spanning the tongue-FOM junction with flap tissue may prevent excessive bulk, improve tongue mobility, and reduce the size requirement of the flap. A split-thickness skin graft can be applied to the intraoral surface of free flaps used to reconstruct through-and-through orocutaneous defects, reducing the complexity of flap design and inset. Maxillectomy defects reconstructed with muscle flaps can be epithelialized immediately with the application of a split-thickness skin graft to provide a stable obturator cavity. In select cases, the combination of split-thickness skin grafts and free tissue transfer may have advantages over the use of flap tissue alone to cover the adjacent areas of a complex defect capable of being grafted.     

Reliability of primary vein grafts in lower extremity free tissue transfers.

Free flaps transferred to the lower extremity have a higher risk of failure, which may be expected to increase further with the use of vein grafts. The results of 103 consecutive free flaps to the lower extremities of 98 patients who were operated from March 1994 to December 1999 were evaluated to assess the reliability of vein grafts in lower extremity reconstruction. Five flaps were lost and the overall success rate was 95.1%. Eighty-four free tissue transfers in 79 patients were performed for the reconstruction of traumatic cases, and 81 of these flaps were performed in a delayed manner, between 1 week and 4 months after the injury. Interpositional vein grafts were used primarily in 22 flaps--all in traumatic cases--and 21 of them survived completely (95.4%). Primary vein grafts were used both for arteries and veins in 15 flaps and for arteries only in 7 flaps. The most common cause of tissue loss in these patients was a crush injury in earthquake survivors, followed by electrical injuries, gunshot injuries, motor vehicle accidents, and chronic infections. Free muscle flaps in 13 patients, skin flaps in 4 patients, osseous flaps in 2 patients, and temporal fascial flaps in 2 patients were the flaps of choice in vein graft reconstructions. Although a higher incidence of flap loss has been reported with the use of interpositional vein grafts than with regular transfers, and the technical and pathophysiological problems in flap transfers are also high in the lower extremity, the success rate in vein-grafted free flaps did not differ from that of the simple free flap transfers in the current series. This appears to be the result of meticulous preoperative planning and proper selection of recipient vessels during optimal operative conditions.     

封闭负压引流联合腓肠肌肌皮瓣治疗胫前软组织缺损

目的探讨封闭负压引流(VSD)联合腓肠肌肌皮瓣治疗胫前软组织缺损的效果。方法对16例胫前中上2/3软组织缺损患者应用VSD联合腓肠肌肌皮瓣治疗。结果 16例均获随访,时间3个月～3年。1例患者行岛状肌皮瓣转移时,因皮瓣血运差改行肌瓣转移+植皮术,全部成活;1例患者出现内固定物排异反应,去除内固定物后伤口愈合。余14例患者皮瓣均成活,伤口一期愈合,对患肢膝、踝关节功能无明显影响。结论一期应用VSD覆盖创面,后行腓肠肌肌皮瓣转移治疗胫前不同平面软组织缺损,操作简单,效果满意。     

Historical review of skin and soft tissue coverage of the upper extremity

This review recounts the known historical development of techniques to achieve soft tissue coverage using free skin grafts, pedicle flaps of various types, and composite tissue transfers with immediate revascularization. There is documentation of an incremental emphasis on muscle-containing pedicle flaps and free revascularized composite tissue transfers in the world literature.     

Reconstruction of extensive defects of the cranium using free-tissue transfer

Fourteen patients with large tissue deficits in the calvarium and orbits were reconstructed using microvascular free-tissue transfer (15 flaps). The etiology of these defects was skin neoplasms (seven), osteomyelitis (four), burn (two), and trauma (one). The free flaps used were the latissimus dorsi muscle flap with a split-thickness skin graft (seven), latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap (two), rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap (three), radial forearm fasciocutaneous flap (two), and split-iliac crest flap (one). There was one postoperative death, one flap failure, two recurrences of neoplasm, and one loss of bone grafts and flap from infection. The free flaps can offer good results in patients undergoing wide resection in the cranium and orbits providing immediate repair with acceptable cosmetic result, minimized morbidity, and short hospitalization. However, immediate reconstruction following tumor resection carries a danger of positive margins discovered on permanent histologic sections or the difficulty in detecting recurrence underneath a bulky free flap.     

Free flaps in the reconstruction of hand and distal forearm injuries.

We report a series of 32 free flap reconstructions following acute hand and forearm trauma. The series consists of two dorsalis pedis flaps, four scapular flaps and 26 lateral arm flaps. One flap became infected and failed completely, and a partial necrosis occurred in another flap. The transfers covered large skin defects, exposed tendons, tendon grafts, bone, bone grafts, joints, nerves and nerve grafts. The donor site morbidity was negligible. Our study shows that free microvascular flaps are a safe and convenient alternative to conventional flaps in hand surgery. The lateral arm flap seems very suitable for small and medium size defects.     

Reconstruction of soft tissue defects of the lower limb using the free serratus anterior flap

Objective: To present the application and clinical results of soft tissue reconstruction of the lower limb with the free serratus anterior muscle flap. Methods: Twenty Chinese adult cadavers were studied to determine detailed anatomical information about the serratus anterior muscle flap. From 1997 to 2007, 82 patients with soft tissue defects of the lower limbs were treated with free serratus anterior muscle flaps and skin grafts. There were 24 females and 58 males, aged from 22 to 63 years (mean 34). The patients were followed up for an average of 30 months (range, 8 months–5 years). Results: All flaps survived except for one, in which necrosis occurred. Six patients developed partial necroses of the muscle flap or skin graft. Five of them healed with debridement or wound care, and one healed with a repeat skin graft. There was no notable donor site morbidity. Dysfunction of the shoulder was not found in any of the patients. Conclusion: The serratus anterior muscle flap is a good option for the treatment of soft tissue defects of the lower limb. This muscle flap has many advantages owing to its anatomical features.     

Free flaps: an overview.

The free flap represents a dramatic one-stage procedure for distant transfer of skin flaps. The operative technique consists of: identification of healthy recipient vessels; isolation of viable island skin flap; distant transfer followed by revascularization via microvascular anastomoses. New techniques warrant classification of free tissue transfers into single tissue transfers (skin, muscle, bone, nerve) and compound tissue transfers (osteocutaneous, musculocutaneous). When compared to conventional techniques, free flap transfers offer shorter hospitalization and immobilization as well as a greater reconstructive potential. However, their utilization mandates extensive experience in multiple microvascular techniques and clinical microsurgery.     

Management of anterolateral thigh free Flap donor site defects with a continuous external tissue expander

Anterolateral thigh (ALT) free flaps can result in donor site wounds that cannot be closed directly, requiring immediate or delayed split‐thickness skin grafting. The use of skin grafts for such wounds can impose postoperative activity restrictions and additional wound morbidity. The purpose of the study was to investigate the efficacy of continuous external tissue expander (CETE) in achieving staged direct closure of these wounds. Outcomes of 20 ALT free flap cases with flap widths up to 15 cm treated with CETE were retrospectively reviewed. Closure of the thigh wounds was achieved in 19 cases with an average expansion time of 9.6 days. The use of a CETE device was effective in achieving staged direct (tertiary) closure and avoiding skin grafting, which further decreased donor site morbidity of large ALT free flap reconstructions. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 35:290–294, 2015.     

体表中间型软组织肿瘤的整形外科治疗

目的总结体表中间型软组织肿瘤的手术治疗经验及其疗效。方法33例体表中间型软组织肿瘤,其中25例（75．8％）为术后复发病例,8例为首次病例,均行肿瘤扩大切除术,在足够的深度、广度下切除肿瘤,一期修复创面。结果本组行邻近皮瓣＋皮片移植修复18例,远位皮瓣＋皮片移植修复7例,皮片移植修复8例。3例游离皮片部分坏死,补充植皮后创面修复;1例后斜角肌肌瓣坏死后锁骨外露,行胸大肌肌瓣转移＋皮片移植后创面修复。随访0．5～4年无一例复发。结论对中间型软组织肿瘤手术治疗时需注意切除的深度和广度,以减少复发机率;采用整形外科技术修复创面可获得满意效果。     

Defektdeckung durch freie Lappenplastiken am Fußrücken

Background

Large complex soft-tissue defects on the dorsum of the foot, with exposed tendons, joints, bones, nerves and vessels, have to be reconstructed by transplantation of free tissue grafts with good blood flow.

Patients and methods

Evaluation of 19 patients with an average age of 38 years who underwent closure of defects on the dorsum of the foot with free muscle flaps (with split-thickness skin grafts) in 14 cases and with free fasciocutaneous flaps in 5 is presented. In 10 patients a gracilis muscle flap was used, in 4 patients a latissimus dorsi flap, and in 2 patients a groin flap, while in 1 patient each an anterolateral thigh flap, an anteromedial thigh flap and a lateral arm flap was used. The aesthetic outcome was evaluated with reference to skin texture, pigmentation, thickness of the free flap and scar formation. The Stanmore system was used to determine the postoperative functional results.

Results

On average, patients were followed up for 29 months. We had no flap loss. A flap debulking procedure was performed in 6 patients. Better aesthetic results were obtained with muscle flaps plus skin graft than with fasciocutaneous flaps. Functional results were excellent in 6 patients, good in 5 and poor in 8 patients.

Conclusion

Free muscle flaps with skin grafts, particularly the free gracilis muscle flap, are superior to fasciocutaneous flaps and perforating flaps in aesthetic outcome and donor site morbidity.     

Preliminary experience with perforator flaps in reconstruction of soft-tissue defects of the foot and ankle

BACKGROUND: Microsurgical reconstruction has improved limb salvage in patients who because of many etiologies have soft-tissue loss from the lower extremities. Free-tissue transfer to the foot and ankle often interferes with postoperative function and footwear because of the bulk of a muscle flap. The foot and ankle often are best treated using thin flaps that will not contract and fibrose, particularly if secondary procedures are required. We hypothesized that perforator flaps, which are thin free-tissue transfers consisting of skin and subcutaneous tissue, both diminish donor site morbidity and are ideally suited for soft-tissue reconstruction of the foot and ankle. METHODS: Ten patients had free- tissue transfers to the foot and ankle using perforator flaps during a 2-year period. Four had acute posttraumatic wounds, three had soft tissue defects with exposed hardware or bone graft after reconstructive surgery, and three had large soft-tissue defects after foot infection secondary to diabetes. Nine had reconstruction with anterolateral thigh perforator flaps and one had reconstruction with a deep inferior epigastric artery (DIEP) perforator flap. RESULTS: All flaps survived. There were no deep infections. Three flaps had minor tissue loss requiring subsequent small skin grafts, all of which healed. There were no donor site complications and no interference of muscle function at the donor sites. Custom shoewear was not required to accommodate the flaps. CONCLUSION: This series highlights the success and utility of perforator flaps in microsurgical reconstruction of the foot and ankle. The greatest advantage of perforator flaps is the diminished donor site morbidity, which was achieved while maintaining high microsurgical success rates. These skin and fat flaps remained pliable and contracted less than muscle flaps, allowing for smooth tendon gliding and easy flap elevation for secondary orthopaedic procedures.     

Distally-based free vascularized tissue grafts in the lower leg

In the field of orthopaedic surgery, the lower leg is often treated by free vascularized tissue grafts. In performing these grafts for reconstruction of the lower leg, the anterior tibial artery and its venae comitantes are frequently selected as anastomosing recipient vessels. However, due to the deep location of the anterior tibial vessels, it is extremely difficult to accomplish antegrade microsurgical anastomoses between the donor vessels and the anterior tibial vessels. This technical difficulty often leads to the possibility of immediate postoperative arterial and venous occlusion. To resolve this problem, the idea of a reverse-flow island flap has been applied to the free vascularized tissue grafts for reconstruction of the lower leg, based on both artery and vein reconstructed with retrograde blood flow. To evaluate clinical outcomes of the procedure mentioned, the postoperative results of 14 patients were reviewed. The free vascularized grafts consisted of seven vascularized fibular grafts with peroneal flaps, six vascularized latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flaps, and one vascularized groin flap. Venous congestion of the flap was not observed and all flaps survived. Bone union was obtained in seven patients treated with vascularized fibular grafts. There were no serious postoperative complications. Distally-based free vascularized tissue grafts in the lower leg are useful procedures in reconstruction of massive bone defects and osteomyelitis of the tibia, and for skin defects on the anterior aspect of the lower leg.     

Pedicled radial forearm flaps for recalcitrant defects about the elbow

Chronic, open wounds about the elbow frequently require flap coverage. Skin grafts, local transposition flaps, muscle transposition flaps, and two-staged pedicled flaps from the chest and abdomen as well as free tissue transfers have all been reported. Recalcitrant elbow defects in patients in whom these previous flaps have failed are especially challenging to the upper extremity reconstructive surgeon. We have successfully employed pedicled radial forearm flaps in three patients in whom one or more previous flaps have failed.     

Reconstruction of burned lower extremities by free flaps

Summary Three latissimus dorsi muscle flaps with skin grafts, one latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap, and one scapular flap were used in reconstruction of deep burns of the heels and calf caused by various agents. The follow-up period was 11 to 46 months. Of the five patients treated, two sustained electrical injuries, two had contact burns and one suffered a degloving injury with a contact burn resulting from a car accident. The latissimus dorsi muscle flaps with skin grafts gave excellent results in reconstruction of the calf and ankle areas due to their large caliber vessels and versatility. The latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap was indicated in a case with extensive soft tissue loss on the sole of the foot with stiffness of the ankle joint in plantar flexion. A non-sensory scapular flap was satisfactory for reconstruction of the medial half of the heel since the remaining lateral half of the heel provided adequate sensation for weight-bearing and protection. Early reconstruction of the burned lower part of the leg with free flaps shortens hospitalization and prevents further extension of the injury. Reconstruction of a burned distal lower extremity provides a challenge for the reconstructive surgeon due to limited availability of local tissue; there is durable soft tissue in the weight-bearing area and a relatively poor blood supply compared to other areas of the body. The basic requirement in the treatment of a full thickness burn is early debridement and immediate coverage of the defect with a skin graft or a well vascularized flap. Even though multiple local flaps, such as axial [7, 17], muscle [1], musculocutaneous [5], fasciocutaneous [11], and island flaps [4], have been described. These flaps are useful in relatively small wounds with undamaged sourrounding tissues. Electrical injuries are manifested in a variety of clinical and pathologic ways with early, as well as delayed, tissue damage complicating reconstruction. With the advent and refinement of microvascular techniques, it has become possible to reconstruct extensive defects of the distal lower extremity with either free muscle flaps with skin grafts [8], myocutaneous free flaps [10], or axial free flaps [18]. This paper relates our experience in reconstruction of extensive defects of the lower extremities caused by various burning agents.     

Free and island flap transfer for soft tissue defects in the hand and forearm

Two hundred twenty patients with soft tissue defects in the hand and forearm were treated with 226 free and island flap transfers. Reconstructed sites involved the thumb in 74 cases, the fingers in 117, the hand in 30, and the forearm in 5. Seventy-nine patients received 82 free flaps, and 141 patients received 144 island flaps. Fifty-six finger reconstruction cases and 73 of 74 thumb reconstruction cases had sensory flap transfers. In the free flap transfer group, 77 flaps survived (93.9%), and 5 failed. In the island flap transfer group, 140 flaps survived (97.2%), and 4 failed. Of the five-failures in the free flap transfers, four were dorsalis pedis flaps, two of which were on patients with an arteriovenous fistula. Of the four failures in the island flap transfers, two were posterior interosseous flaps and two were digital island flaps. All four were reverse-flow island flaps. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

背阔肌皮瓣在上肢严重组织缺损的临床应用

目的报道应用背阔肌皮瓣修复严重上肢组织缺损的临床效果。方法对2002年3月-2011年9月收治的28例严重上肢组织缺损,同时创面伴有骨质、肌腱外露或骨缺损潜腔形成、骨髓炎者采用背阔肌皮瓣进行修复。急诊修复17例,其中2例修复组织缺损的同时行屈肘功能重建,1例行伸肘功能重建;5例游离移植背阔肌皮瓣填塞死腔治疗前臂骨髓炎。皮瓣供区创面行植皮或直接缝合。结果术后28例皮瓣成活良好,供区植皮成活良好。术后随访6～30个月,皮瓣外形、创面闭合及患肢功能改善满意。其中1例屈肘功能重建术后肌力恢复至M3＋,另1例术后肌力恢复至M3．1例伸肘功能重建术后肌力恢复至M3＋;1例术后出现静脉危象,探查修复后皮瓣坏死约1／4,经扩创植皮后创面闭合：2例于术后1年因皮瓣臃肿行皮瓣修整术。结论背阔肌皮瓣切取方便．对严重上肢组织缺损的创面闭合、骨髓炎的治疗及患肢功能重建疗效满意。     

下肢静脉曲张微创旋切术后皮肤软组织坏死的原因及处理

目的：分析下肢静脉曲张微创旋切术后皮肤软组织坏死的原因,并总结治疗经验。方法：2007年12月～2009年2月,采用不同的修复方法治疗10例下肢静脉曲张微创旋切术后创面,对其临床治疗进行分析总结。结果：术后不同时期的创面均予以彻底切除坏死组织,培养新鲜肉芽组织;周围有正常组织者,采用局部皮瓣转移修复;周围无正常组织者,应用简易封闭负压治疗技术,创面局部环境改善后,行局部皮瓣或皮片移植修复。皮瓣转移4例,2例皮瓣100％成活;2例皮瓣部分坏死,经再次清创,移植皮片成活;其余6例均行皮片移植术,皮片均100％成活。经术后1～10月随访,功能恢复满意。结论：根据下肢静脉曲张行旋切术后皮肤软组织坏死的特点,必需在彻底切除坏死组织后,延期修复创面,以中厚皮片移植修复为首选,慎选局部皮瓣转移。     

Vacuum-assisted closure, dermal regeneration template and degloved cryopreserved skin as useful tools in subtotal degloving of the lower limb

The standard management of degloving injuries involves either immediate grafting with the avulsed skin or full- or split-thickness grafts at a later date. Alternative methods include pedicle and free flaps and revascularisation. The authors present an innovative technique of treating degloving injuries with cryopreserved split-thickness skin grafts harvested from degloved flap, artificial dermal replacement and vacuum-assisted closure (VAC therapy). To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of such bilaminar reconstruction of a degloving injury.     

Free temporoparietal fascial flaps and full-thickness skin grafts in aesthetic restoration of the nose

Free tissue transfers have been rapidly replacing distant flaps for use in nasal reconstruction. The temporoparietal fascial flap is a thin, broad, pliable, and well-vascularized flap. It can be used to drape over the cartilaginous and bony framework of the nasal skeleton and nourish the underlying primary cartilage grafts as well as the overlying full-thickness skin graft. The thin contour of the flap is aesthetically superior to thicker skin flaps and eliminates the need for secondary defatting or touch-up procedures. A large, single sheet of full-thickness skin graft, harvested from the supraclavicular region, can be applied over the fascial flap in the same session and provide a quite acceptable color match. The authors present a case whose alar margins and atrophic nasal skin were restored in one session by primary conchal cartilage grafts, a free temporoparietal fascial flap, and a full-thickness supraclavicular skin graft.