Socioeconomic status as a cause and consequence of psychosomatic symptoms from adolescence to adulthood

Background Few follow-up studies have investigated psychosomatic health and socioeconomic status (SES) and associations between them at different life stages. The aim of this study was to investigate differences in psychosomatic symptoms by SES in adolescence, early adulthood and adulthood and to examine whether lower SES leads to higher levels of symptoms (social causation) or higher levels of symptoms to lower SES (health selection) or both.Methods All 16-year-old ninth-grade school pupils of one Finnish city completed questionnaires at school. Subjects were followed up using postal questionnaires when aged 22 and 32 years.Results Females reported significantly higher scores of psychosomatic symptoms than males at 16, 22 and 32 years of age. Higher rates of psychosomatic symptoms were found among females of manual class origin at 16 years. In addition, at 22 years, both females and males with only comprehensive school education and, at 32 years, those who worked in manual jobs had higher scores of symptoms. When low SES both as a cause and consequence of symptoms was investigated, the findings supported both these paths among females and more the health selection among males. In both genders, especially the path from psychosomatic symptoms in adolescence to lower education in early adulthood was strong.Conclusions The results highlight the need of greater consideration of psychosomatic symptoms, particularly in adolescence, in later socioeconomic outcomes.     

Effects of autistic traits on social and school adjustment in children and adolescents: The moderating roles of age and gender

This study examined the associations between children's and adolescents' autistic-like social deficits and school and social adjustment as well as the moderating roles of age and gender in these associations. The sample consisted of 1321 students (48.7% boys) in Grade 1 to Grade 8 from northern Taiwan. Children's and adolescents' autistic-like social deficits were assessed using the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), and their school and social adjustment (i.e., academic performance, negative attitudes toward schoolwork/teachers/classmates, behavioral problems at schools, negative peer relationships, and problems with peers) were assessed using the Social Adjustment Inventory for Children and Adolescents (SAICA). Both measures were completed by the mothers of the participants. Results from the linear mixed models demonstrated that autistic-like social deficits were associated with poor academic performance, negative attitudes toward schoolwork, teachers, and classmates, behavioral problems at schools, negative peer relationships, and problematic peer interactions. Moreover, gender and/or age moderated the associations between autistic-like social deficits and school and social adjustment problems. For example, autistic-like social deficits were more strongly related to negative school attitude, school social problems, and negative peer relationships in boys than in girls. Further, autistic-like social deficits were more strongly related to problems with peers in older girls than in older boys or younger children (regardless of gender). In conclusion, the present study suggests that autistic-like social deficits may place children and adolescents at increased risk for social and school maladjustment and that the extent of maladjustment may vary with the child's age and gender and the domains of adjustment under discussion.     

The prevalence of teachers who bully students in schools with differing levels of behavioral problems

OBJECTIVE: This study looked for a relationship between the prevalence of teachers who bully students and school behavioral problems reflected in suspensions from school. METHOD: A convenience sample of 214 teachers answered an anonymous questionnaire about their perceptions of teachers who bully students and their own practices. Teachers were grouped into whether they taught at schools with low, medium, or high rates of suspensions. Analyses of variance were used to analyze continuous variables, and chi-square statistics were used to study categorical variables. RESULTS: Teachers from schools with high rates of suspensions reported that they themselves bullied more students, had experienced more bullying when they were students, had worked with more bullying teachers over the past 3 years, and had seen more bullying teachers over the past year. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that teachers who bully students may have some role in the etiology of behavioral problems in schoolchildren.     

Effects of autistic traits on social and school adjustment in children and adolescents: The moderating roles of age and gender

This study examined the associations between children's and adolescents’ autistic-like social deficits and school and social adjustment as well as the moderating roles of age and gender in these associations. The sample consisted of 1321 students (48.7% boys) in Grade 1 to Grade 8 from northern Taiwan. Children's and adolescents’ autistic-like social deficits were assessed using the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), and their school and social adjustment (i.e., academic performance, negative attitudes toward schoolwork/teachers/classmates, behavioral problems at schools, negative peer relationships, and problems with peers) were assessed using the Social Adjustment Inventory for Children and Adolescents (SAICA). Both measures were completed by the mothers of the participants. Results from the linear mixed models demonstrated that autistic-like social deficits were associated with poor academic performance, negative attitudes toward schoolwork, teachers, and classmates, behavioral problems at schools, negative peer relationships, and problematic peer interactions. Moreover, gender and/or age moderated the associations between autistic-like social deficits and school and social adjustment problems. For example, autistic-like social deficits were more strongly related to negative school attitude, school social problems, and negative peer relationships in boys than in girls. Further, autistic-like social deficits were more strongly related to problems with peers in older girls than in older boys or younger children (regardless of gender). In conclusion, the present study suggests that autistic-like social deficits may place children and adolescents at increased risk for social and school maladjustment and that the extent of maladjustment may vary with the child's age and gender and the domains of adjustment under discussion.     

Development of a psychosomatic complaints scale for adolescents

There have been only a few questionnaires that can be used to comprehend the psychosomatic complaints of adolescents. Therefore, the objective of the present investigation was to develop a scale for high school students in order to comprehend psychosomatic complaints deriving from psychologic problems. The collection of scale items was performed referring to the health actual situation survey carried out on Japanese school children in the past, and 30 items with a high incidence of psychosomatic complaints were selected out of them and were set as scale items. A survey to assess reliability and validity of the 30 items of the psychosomatic complaint scale was then conducted on the subjects of 759 high school students in total over 3 years. At assessment of validity of the scale, one-factor structure was confirmed by factor analysis and both the eigenvalue and factor loading were found to be at acceptable levels. Further, at assessment of the reliability of the scale, both Cronbach's alpha coefficient indicating internal consistency and the correlation coefficient indicating reproducibility were found to be high. It was concluded that the psychosomatic complaint scale developed in the present investigation was excellent in validity and reliability and was highly practical, having a reduced number of items.     

Family dynamics, gender differences and educational attainment in Filipino adolescents

The relationship between parenting style, marital relationships and subsequent educational attainment is explored among 1428 Filipino adolescents attending school in 1994 and 1096 attending school in 1999. Girls in households where their fathers physically abused their mothers were significantly less likely to complete primary school, and girls who reported parental arguments completed fewer grades. In contrast, girls in households where parents made decisions jointly were more likely to finish secondary school and attain more grades. Boys attained more education if they reported being close to their mothers. Boys with authoritative mothers attained more grades and were more likely to complete secondary school as compared to boys with neglectful mothers. In this context, marital relationships and parent-child relationships are important for understanding adolescent educational attainment.     

Gender differences in the relationship between depression and suicidal ideation in young adolescents

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the risk relationship between depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation for young adolescent males and females. METHOD: A large cohort of students in their first year of high school completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) and the Adolescent Suicide Questionnaire. The risk relationship between depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation was modelled using non-parametric kernel-smoothing techniques. RESULTS: Suicidal ideation was more frequently reported by females compared with males which was partly explained by females having higher mean depression scores. At moderate levels of depression females also had a significantly higher risk of suicidal ideation compared with males and this increased risk contributed to the overall higher levels of female ideation. CONCLUSIONS: The risk relationship between depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation is different for young adolescent males and females. The results indicate that moderate levels of depressive symptomatology can be associated with suicidal ideation (especially among young females) and that for these young people a suicide risk assessment is required.     

Attachment and self-evaluation in Chinese adolescents: Age and gender differences

This study investigated age and gender differences in the quality of attachment to mothers, fathers, and peers, and the association of attachment with measures of self-evaluation in 584 Chinese adolescents in junior high, high school, and university. Their responses to the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment indexed attachment quality, and self-evaluation was measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Self-Liking and Self-Competence Scale. Consistent with findings with Western samples, our analyses revealed (a) lower parent–child relationship quality in middle (compared to early) adolescence, (b) a significant association of parental and peer attachment with self-evaluation, and (c) gender differences in attachment to peers, with females reporting stronger attachment than males. Chinese females reported stronger maternal attachment than did males, and for females the quality of maternal attachment was more strongly related to self-evaluation than any other attachment relationship. During high school, peer attachment quality – rather than parental – was preeminently associated with self-evaluation. The findings of this study indicate that in a context of considerable consistency of findings with Western studies, parent–child attachment in Chinese adolescents is also influenced by culture-specific practices that influence parent–youth relationships and their meaning to the child.     

Difference of the 28-Item General Health Questionnaire Scores between Japanese High School and University Students

Abstract: The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) with 28 items was tested in Nagasaki city on 138 senior students in a prefectural high school and 685 freshmen in a national university to evaluate the degree of students' mental stress due to the highly competitive entrance examination for university. The average GHQ score tested on high school students was 5.33 for males and 7.07 for females, and 3.99 for males and 4.42 for females on university students. It showed that high school students were under greater pressure than university students and female students were in a higher tension compared with male students. The factor analysis showed that the primary and secondary factor of high school students were "severe depression" and "anxiety and insomnia," while "somatic symptoms" were the primary factor causing stress in university students.     

Academic well-being and smoking among 14- to 17-year-old schoolchildren in six European cities

It is well established that poor academic performance is related to smoking, but the association between academic well-being and smoking is less known. We measured academic well-being by school burnout and schoolwork engagement and studied their associations with smoking among 14- to 17-year-old schoolchildren in Belgium, Germany, Finland, Italy, the Netherlands, and Portugal. A classroom survey (2013 SILNE survey, N = 11,015) was conducted using the Short School Burnout Inventory and the Schoolwork Engagement Inventory. Logistic regression, generalized linear mixed models, and ANOVA were used. Low schoolwork engagement and high school burnout increased the odds for daily smoking in all countries. Academic performance was correlated with school burnout and schoolwork engagement, and adjusting for it slightly decreased the odds for smoking. Adjusting for socioeconomic factors and school level had little effect. Although high school burnout and low schoolwork engagement correlate with low academic performance, they are mutually independent risk factors for smoking.     

Parenting style in relation to pathogenic and protective factors of type A behaviour pattern

Background: Studies of type A behaviour pattern suggest that it can be promoted as a whole by certain parental rearing styles. However, the association of the different components of the type A behaviour with specific rearing practices has not been clarified. Method: The relationship between parents' rearing style and the different type A behaviour components of their children was analysed in a sample of 312 university students. Parental rearing style was assessed with the EMBU, a Swedish measure originally designed to assess one's recollections concerning one's parents rearing behaviour. Type A pattern was measured by the JAS, a self-administered questionnaire that gives the global type A score and three of its components. Results: Hard Driving was related to Rejection and Favouring Subject in males. Speed-Impatience was related to Rejection and Control in both sexes, and Job Involvement was related to Control and Favouring Subject in females. In a discriminant factor analysis in males, Rejection, Control and Favouring Subject on the part of fathers classified correctly 80% of the subjects identified as having high or low Speed-Impatience and the variables of Rejection and Favouring Subject (also by fathers) classified correctly 69.23% of the subjects identified as high or low Hard Driving. In females, Control and Favouring Subject on the part of mothers and low Rejection by fathers classified correctly 70.37% of the subjects with high or low Job Involvement. Conclusion: These results suggest that different rearing characteristics are related to the various components of the type A behaviour pattern. Accepted: 24 March 1999     

Early childhood predictors of mothers' and fathers' relationships with adolescents with developmental disabilities

Background The importance of positive parent–adolescent relationships is stressed in research on adolescents, although very little is known about this relationship when a teen has developmental disabilities (DD). We investigated the relationships of adolescents with disabilities with their mothers and their fathers in order to answer a number of questions regarding these relationships. In particular, we asked: are there differences in the relationships of mothers and fathers with their adolescent with DD? Are there early childhood predictors of the parent–teen relationship and are those based on variables that are amenable to intervention? Finally, do these predictors differ for mothers and fathers? Methods This study focused on the relationships of 72 mothers and 53 fathers with their 15‐year‐old teens with DD and their predictors from the early childhood years. Data were collected from parents through interviews and self‐administered questionnaires, and from their children with disabilities through structured assessment when children were age 3 years and again at age 15 years. Results Analyses indicated that both mother–teen and father–teen relationships were predicted by earlier parenting stress. The father–teen relationship was also predicted by early behaviour problems, but this relation was mediated by parenting stress. Socio‐economic status, type of disability and the child's level of functioning were not predictive of later relationships between parents and teens. Mothers and fathers did not differ significantly in their reports of perceived positive relationships with their teens. Conclusions The findings from this study suggest two important points of potential intervention during the early intervention years. First, parenting assistance and support to reduce stress during the early childhood years can benefit both mothers and fathers. Second, helping families and children cope with and diminish problem behaviours is likely to yield multiple advantages for parents and children and deserves emphasis in early intervention and pre‐school programmes.     

The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism

It has been suggested that autism may arise as the result of exposure to high concentrations of prenatal testosterone. There is evidence that the ratio of the lengths of the 2nd and 4th digit (2D:4D) may be negatively correlated with prenatal testosterone. We measured 2D:4D in 95 families recruited via the National Autistic Society, UK. The sample comprised a total 72 children with autism (62 males, 10 females; age range 2 to 14 years), including 23 children (20 males, three females) with Asperger syndrome (AS), 34 siblings, 88 fathers, 88 mothers and sex- and age-matched control participants. We found that the 2D:4D ratios of children with autism, their siblings, fathers and mothers were lower than population normative values. Children with AS, who share the social and communicative symptoms of autism but have normal or even high IQ, had higher 2D:4D ratios than children with autism but lower ratios than population normative values. There were positive associations between 2D:4D ratios of children with autism and the ratios of their relatives. Children with autism had lower than expected 2D:4D ratios and children with AS higher ratios than expected in relation to their fathers' 2D:4D ratio. It was concluded that 2D:4D ratio may be a possible marker for autism which could implicate prenatal testosterone in its aetiology.     

Self-image and parental attachment among late adolescents in Belize

This study investigated the relationship of ethnicity, parental education, gender, and parental attachment to multiple dimensions of self-image among 285 (161 female and 124 male) late adolescent Belizean students. Student ratings of self-image were unrelated to paternal education and student ethnicity. For maternal education, ethnic identity was higher for students whose mothers were high school graduates than for those whose mothers had completed college or a graduate degree. Female students reported more positive self-images than males in vocational attitudes. Favourable self-images were associated with secure ratings of parental attachment.     

高三学生不同个性特征与高考应付方式的对比研究

目的探讨高三学生不同个性特征与其应付方式的关系。方法采用艾森克个性问卷和应付方式问卷,在高考前对350名学生进行测试。结果考前具有精神质性格的学生,其应付方式以不成熟型和混合型显著多于成熟型（P均〈0．01）;相关分析提示其与解决问题和求助两因子均呈显著负相关,而与回避因子呈显著正相关;具有外向性学生,其应付方式以成熟型和混合型显著多于不成熟型（P均〈0．01）;相关分析提示其与应付方式问卷的解决问题和求助两因子呈显著正相关;情绪稳定性的学生多采用三种不同类型应付方式,但混合型和不成熟型显著多于成熟型（P均〈0．01）;相关分析提示其与应付方式问卷的自责,幻想和回避均呈显著正相关。结论具有精神质学生,在处理各种应急时,多采用消极的应付方式,而具有外向性学生,则多采用积极的、成熟的应付方式;具有情绪稳定性的学生,多采用自责和幻想等应付方式。     

上海市中学生对心理卫生问题的知晓度调查

目的 了解并比较上海初中生与高中生对心理卫生问题的知晓情况。方法 采用儿童心理卫生知晓问卷和长处与困难问卷（SDQ）对737名中学生进行了研究。结果 初中生在同伴交往和社会行为方面问题多于高中生组。高中生在情绪、注意力上问题多于初中生。高中生对严重心理卫生问题的识别力高于初中生。初中生和高中生对服药和与人谈论来解决心理问题的方法都不认可,尤其是高中生。都认为家庭对心理卫生问题的影响很大,初中生更相信他们的父母能发现并帮助他们解决心理问题,而高中组中则相反。结论 上海初中生和高中生对心理卫生问题的知晓情况存在差别。     

Adolescent gender differences in mattering and wellness

Mattering to others has been associated with psychosocial well-being and overall wellness. The relationship of perceived interpersonal and general mattering to overall wellness was studied with a sample of 462 high school students (229 males and 233 females). The two measures of perceived mattering (the Mattering to Others Questionnaire and the General Mattering Scale) were significantly but modestly interrelated (r=.29). Both scales were significantly correlated with overall scores on the Wellness Evaluation of Life Style-Teenage form. Females perceived they matter to their families, and in general, more than do males, and mattering significantly predicted wellness for females.     

Psychosomatic disease in female teachers. Social context, contents and perspectives of inpatient treatment with a goal of rehabilitation and return to work

Despite the considerable consequences, school teachers treated in psychosomatic in-patient settings, have not yet been the subject of investigations. Whether, for whom and which kind of job related treatment can be helpful for teachers returning to work can only be discussed if the specific stress and the social situation of teachers as public officials ("Beamtenstatus") are taken into consideration. On this point of view a systematic evaluation of 63 psychosomatically ill teachers consecutively admitted in a psychosomatic hospital was performed. The average age was 50, suffering mostly from depression or/and tinnitus. Most teachers rated job related stress as influencing their symptomatologies. A program focusing on discrepancies between personal ideals versus real situations in school, problems in social interactions and time management, should be a valuable part of the teachers' psychosomatic inpatient treatment. This approach was affected by a strong desire for early retirement in about half of the teachers.     

Poor school bonding and delinquency over time: Bidirectional effects and sex differences

The association between poor school bonding and delinquency has only been partly addressed in earlier research. Using a longitudinal design, the objective of our study was to investigate possible bidirectional effects and sex differences between adolescents’ experienced school bonding and self-rated delinquency over time. A total of 788 adolescents (353 boys and 435 girls) were investigated by questionnaire at age 14 and 16. Poor school attachment and commitment as well as poor teacher attachment were found to be stronger determinants of delinquency for males than for females. Delinquency predicted poor school commitment for both boys and girls, and poor school attachment for girls, thus indicating bidirectional effects over time and sex differences in some of the bidirectional effects. The study concludes that the delinquency propensity of adolescent boys may be affected by all school bonding dimensions, whereas for girls it is their relationship with their teachers that is of significance.