Fast neutron absorbed dose distributions in the energy range 0.5-80 meV--a Monte Carlo study

Neutron pencil-beam absorbed dose distributions in phantoms of bone, ICRU soft tissue, muscle, adipose and the tissue substitutes water, A-150 (plastic) and PMMA (acrylic) have been calculated using the Monte Carlo code FLUKA in the energy range 0.5 to 80 MeV. For neutrons of energies < or = 20 MeV, the results were compared to those obtained using the Monte Carlo code MCNP4B. Broad-beam depth doses and lateral dose distributions were derived. Broad-beam dose distributions in various materials were compared using two kinds of scaling factor: a depth-scaling factor and a dose-scaling factor. Build-up factors due to scattered neutrons and photons were derived and the appropriate choice of phantom material for determining dose distributions in soft tissue examined. Water was found to be a good substitute for soft tissue even at neutron energies as high as 80 MeV. The relative absorbed doses due to photons ranged from 2% to 15% for neutron energies 10-80 MeV depending on phantom material and depth. For neutron energies below 10 MeV the depth dose distributions derived with MCNP4B and FLUKA differed significantly, the difference being probably due to the use of multigroup transport of low energy (< 19.6 MeV) neutrons in FLUKA. Agreement improved with increasing neutron energies up to 20 MeV. At energies > 20 MeV, MCNP4B fails to describe dose build-up at the phantom interface and penumbra at the edge of the beam because it does not transport secondary charged particles. The penumbra width, defined as the distance between the 80% and 20% iso-dose levels at 5 cm depth and for a 10 x 10 cm2 field, was between 0.9 mm and 7.2 mm for neutron energies 10-80 MeV.     

Monte Carlo simulations for external neutron dosimetry based on the visible Chinese human phantom

A group of Monte Carlo simulations has been performed for external neutron dosimetry calculation based on a whole-body anatomical model, the visible Chinese human (VCH) phantom, which was newly developed from high-resolution cryosectional color photographic images of a healthy Chinese adult male cadaver. Physical characteristics of the VCH computational phantom that consists of 230 x 120 x 892 voxels corresponding to an element volume of 2 x 2 x 2 mm(3) are evaluated through comparison against a variety of other anthropomorphic models. Organ-absorbed doses and the effective doses for monoenergic neutron beams ranging from 10(-9) MeV to 10 GeV under six idealized irradiation geometries (AP, PA, LLAT, RLAT, ROT and ISO) were calculated using the Monte Carlo code MCNPX2.5. Absorbed dose results for selected organs and the effective doses are presented in the form of tables. Dose results are also compared with currently available neutron data form ICRP Publication 74 and those of VIP-Man. Anatomical variations between different models, as well as their influence on dose distributions, are explored. Detailed information derived from the VCH phantom is able to lend quantitative references to the widespread application of human computational models in radiology.     

Simulation of organ-specific patient effective dose due to secondary neutrons in proton radiation treatment

Cancer patients undergoing radiation treatment are exposed to high doses to the target (tumour), intermediate doses to adjacent tissues and low doses from scattered radiation to all parts of the body. In the case of proton therapy, secondary neutrons generated in the accelerator head and inside the patient reach many areas in the patient body. Due to the improved efficacy of management of cancer patients, the number of long term survivors post-radiation treatment is increasing substantially. This results in concern about the risk of radiation-induced cancer appearing at late post-treatment times. This paper presents a case study to determine the effective dose from secondary neutrons in patients undergoing proton treatment. A whole-body patient model, VIP-Man, was employed as the patient model. The geometry dataset generated from studies made on VIP-Man was implemented into the GEANT4 Monte Carlo code. Two proton treatment plans for tumours in the lung and paranasal sinus were simulated. The organ doses and ICRP-60 radiation and tissue weighting factors were used to calculate the effective dose. Results show whole body effective doses for the two proton plans of 0.162 Sv and 0.0266 Sv, respectively, to which the major contributor is due to neutrons from the proton treatment nozzle. There is a substantial difference among organs depending on the treatment site.     

Specific absorbed fractions from the image-based VIP-Man body model and EGS4-VLSI Monte Carlo code: internal electron emitters

VIP-Man is a whole-body anatomical model newly developed at Rensselaer from the high-resolution colour images of the National Library of Medicine's Visible Human Project. This paper summarizes the use of VIP-Man and the Monte Carlo method to calculate specific absorbed fractions from internal electron emitters. A specially designed EGS4 user code, named EGS4-VLSI, was developed to use the extremely large number of image data contained in the VIP-Man. Monoenergetic and isotropic electron emitters with energies from 100 keV to 4 MeV are considered to be uniformly distributed in 26 organs. This paper presents, for the first time, results of internal electron exposures based on a realistic whole-body tomographic model. Because VIP-Man has many organs and tissues that were previously not well defined (or not available) in other models, the efforts at Rensselaer and elsewhere bring an unprecedented opportunity to significantly improve the internal dosimetry.     

Microdosimetric study for secondary neutrons in phantom produced by a 290 MeV/nucleon carbon beam

Absorbed doses from main charged-particle beams and charged-particle fragments have been measured with high accuracy for particle therapy, but there are few reports for doses from neutron components produced as fragments. This study describes the measurements on neutron doses produced by carbon beams; microdosimetric distributions of secondary neutrons produced by 290 MeV/nucleon carbon beams have been measured by using a tissue equivalent proportional counter at the Heavy Ion Medical Accelerator in Chiba, Japan at the National Institute of Radiological Sciences. The microdosimetric distributions of the secondary neutron were measured on the distal and lateral faces of a body-simulated acrylic phantom (300 mm height x 300 mm width x 253 mm thickness). To confirm the dose measurements, the neutron energy spectra produced by incident carbon beams in the acrylic phantom were simulated by the particle and heavy ion transport code system. The absorbed doses obtained by multiplying the simulated neutron energy spectra with the kerma factor calculated by MCNPX agree with the corresponding experimental data fairly well. Downstream of the Bragg peak, the ratio of the neutron dose to the carbon dose at the Bragg peak was found to be a maximum of 1.4 x 10(-4) and the ratio of neutron dose was a maximum of 3.0 x 10(-7) at a lateral face of the acrylic phantom. The ratios of neutrons to charged particle fragments were 11% to 89% in the absorbed doses at the lateral and the distal faces of the acrylic phantom. We can conclude that the treatment dose will not induce serious secondary neutron effects at distances greater than 90 mm from the Bragg peak in carbon particle therapy.     

Neutron doses in negative pion radiotherapy

Absorbed neutron doses in regions outside the treatment volume from negative pion radiotherapy are presented, based on neutron spectral measurements for pions stopping in a tissue-equivalent target. A Monte Carlo neutron transport computer code was developed and used to calculate the absorbed dose as a function of the distance from the centre of the treatment volume. The Monte Carlo code, which is a modification of a neutron detector efficiency code, follows neutrons and gamma rays as they interact with either hydrogen or oxygen nuclei in a phantom. The code includes neutron elastic scattering on both hydrogen and oxygen as well as five inelastic nuclear reactions on oxygen. The recoil charged particles which provide the absorbed dose are considered until the neutron escapes the phantom or its kinetic energy falls below 1 ke V. Calculations of absorbed dose are compared with earlier dose calculations and measurements. Measurements of the neutron spectrum from a tissue-equivalent target indicate that the total kinetic energy carried away by neutrons is about 76 MeV, which is a significantly higher value than that used in earlier estimates of the neutron dose. The calculations presented here suggest that the neutron dose outside large treatment volumes may limit the use of negative pions for some therapeutic applications.     

Adjoint Monte Carlo method for prostate external photon beam treatment planning: an application to 3D patient anatomy

Recently, the theoretical framework of the adjoint Monte Carlo (AMC) method has been developed using a simplified patient geometry. In this study, we extended our previous work by applying the AMC framework to a 3D anatomical model called VIP-Man constructed from the Visible Human images. First, the adjoint fluxes for the prostate (PTV) and rectum and bladder (organs at risk (OARs)) were calculated on a spherical surface of 1 m radius, centred at the centre of gravity of PTV. An importance ratio, defined as the PTV dose divided by the weighted OAR doses, was calculated for each of the available beamlets to select the beam angles. Finally, the detailed doses in PTV and OAR were calculated using a forward Monte Carlo simulation to include the electron transport. The dose information was then used to generate dose volume histograms (DVHs). The Pinnacle treatment planning system was also used to generate DVHs for the 3D plans with beam angles obtained from the AMC (3D-AMC) and a standard six-field conformal radiation therapy plan (3D-CRT). Results show that the DVHs for prostate from 3D-AMC and the standard 3D-CRT are very similar, showing that both methods can deliver prescribed dose to the PTV. A substantial improvement in the DVHs for bladder and rectum was found for the 3D-AMC method in comparison to those obtained from 3D-CRT. However, the 3D-AMC plan is less conformal than the 3D-CRT plan because only bladder, rectum and PTV are considered for calculating the importance ratios. Nevertheless, this study clearly demonstrated the feasibility of the AMC in selecting the beam directions as a part of a treatment planning based on the anatomical information in a 3D and realistic patient anatomy.     

X-ray imaging optimization using virtual phantoms and computerized observer modelling

This study develops and demonstrates a realistic x-ray imaging simulator with computerized observers to maximize lesion detectability and minimize patient exposure. A software package, ViPRIS, incorporating two computational patient phantoms, has been developed for simulating x-ray radiographic images. A tomographic phantom, VIP-Man, constructed from Visible Human anatomical colour images is used to simulate the scattered portion using the ESGnrc Monte Carlo code. The primary portion of an x-ray image is simulated using the projection ray-tracing method through the Visible Human CT data set. To produce a realistic image, the software simulates quantum noise, blurring effects, lesions, detector absorption efficiency and other imaging artefacts. The primary and scattered portions of an x-ray chest image are combined to form a final image for computerized observer studies and image quality analysis. Absorbed doses in organs and tissues of the segmented VIP-Man phantom were also obtained from the Monte Carlo simulations. Approximately 25,000 simulated images and 2,500,000 data files were analysed using computerized observers. Hotelling and Laguerre-Gauss Hotelling observers are used to perform various lesion detection tasks. Several model observer tasks were used including SKE/BKE, MAFC and SKEV. The energy levels and fluence at the minimum dose required to detect a small lesion were determined with respect to lesion size, location and system parameters.     

Experimental kerma coefficients and dose distributions of C, N, O, Mg, Al, Si, Fe, Zr, A-150 plastic, Al203, AlN, SiO2 and ZrO2 for neutron energies up to 66 MeV

Low-pressure proportional counters (LPPCs) with walls made from the elements C, Mg, Al, Si, Fe and Zr and from the chemical compounds A-150 plastic, AlN, Al2O3, SiO2 and ZrO2 were used to measure neutron fluence-to-kerma conversion coefficients at energies up to 66 MeV. The LPPCs served to measure the absorbed dose deposited in the gas of a cavity surrounded by the counter walls that could be converted to the absorbed dose to the wall on the basis of the Bragg-Gray cavity theory. Numerically the absorbed doses to the walls were almost equal to the corresponding kerma values of the wall materials. The neutron fluence was determined by various experimental methods based on the reference cross sections of the 1H(n, p) scattering and/or the 238U(n, f) reactions. The measurements were performed in monoenergetic neutron fields of energies of 5 MeV, 8 MeV, 15 MeV and 17 MeV and in polyenergetic neutron beams with prominent peaks of energies of 34 MeV, 44 MeV and 66 MeV. For the measurements in the polyenergetic neutron beams, significant corrections for the contributions of the non peak energy neutrons were applied. The fluence-to kerma conversion coefficients of N and O were determined using the difference technique applied with matched pairs of LPPCs made from a chemical compound and a pure element. This paper reports experimental fluence-to-kerma conversion coefficient values of eight elements and four compounds measured for seven neutron energies, and presents a comparison with data from previous measurements and theoretical predictions. The distributions of the absorbed dose as a function of the lineal energy were measured for monoenergetic neutrons or, for polyenergetic neutron fields, deduced by applying iterative unfolding procedures in order to subtract the contributions from non-peak energy neutrons. The dose distributions provide insight into the neutron interaction processes.     

Photonuclear dose calculations for high-energy photon beams from Siemens and Varian linacs

The dose from photon-induced nuclear particles (neutrons, protons, and alpha particles) generated by high-energy photon beams from medical linacs is investigated. Monte Carlo calculations using the MCNPX code are performed for three different photon beams from two different machines: Siemens 18 MV, Varian 15 MV, and Varian 18 MV. The linac head components are simulated in detail. The dose distributions from photons, neutrons, protons, and alpha particles are calculated in a tissue-equivalent phantom. Neutrons are generated in both the linac head and the phantom. This study includes (a) field size effects, (b) off-axis dose profiles, (c) neutron contribution from the linac head, (d) dose contribution from capture gamma rays, (e) phantom heterogeneity effects, and (f) effects of primary electron energy shift. Results are presented in terms of absolute dose distributions and also in terms of DER (dose equivalent ratio). The DER is the maximum dose from the particle (neutron, proton, or alpha) divided by the maximum photon dose, multiplied by the particle quality factor and the modulation scaling factor. The total DER including neutrons, protons, and alphas is about 0.66 cSv/Gy for the Siemens 18 MV beam (10 cm x 10 cm). The neutron DER decreases with decreasing field size while the proton (or alpha) DER does not vary significantly except for the 1 cm x 1 cm field. Both Varian beams (15 and 18 MV) produce more neutrons, protons, and alphas particles than the Siemens 18 MV beam. This is mainly due to their higher primary electron energies: 15 and 18.3 MeV, respectively, vs 14 MeV for the Siemens 18 MV beam. For all beams, neutrons contribute more than 75% of the total DER, except for the 1 cm x 1 cm field (approximately 50%). The total DER is 1.52 and 2.86 cSv/Gy for the 15 and 18 MV Varian beams (10 cm x 10 cm), respectively. Media with relatively high-Z elements like bone may increase the dose from heavy charged particles by a factor 4. The total DER is sensitive to primary electron energy shift. A Siemens 18 MV beam with 15 MeV (instead of 14 MeV) primary electrons would increase by 40% the neutron DER and by 210% the proton + alpha DER. Comparisons with measurements (neutron yields from different materials and neutron dose equivalent) are also presented. Using the NCRP risk assessment method, we found that the dose equivalent from leakage neutrons (at 50-cm off-axis distance) represent 1.1, 1.1, and 2.0% likelihood of fatal secondary cancer for a 70 Gy treatment delivered by the Siemens 18 MV, Varian 15 MV, and Varian 18 MV beams, respectively.     

Neutron sensitivity of a carbon-walled CO2-filled ionisation chamber.

In an earlier publication, an expression was derived for the sensitivity of carbon walled, carbon dioxide-filled ionisation chamber, for low-energy neutrons. This expression has been extended to allow its use for high-energy neutrons, and has been used to make detailed calculations for a particular ionisation chamber irradiated with either 15 MeV or 5.5 MeV neutrons. These results of these calculations are compared with experimental values and, within the stated limits, reasonable agreement is obtained.     

An image-based rat model for Monte Carlo organ dose calculations

An anatomically realistic rat model was developed from color images of successive cryosections of a mature Sprague-Dawley rat. Images were obtained, by digital scanning, of 9475 slices with thickness of 0.02 mm. A total of 13 major organs and tissues were selected, and models of these organs and tissues constructed from the images were used for calculations of absorbed dose from external photon sources. A detailed set of conversion coefficients from kerma free-in-air to organ absorbed dose have been calculated for external monoenergetic photon beams with energies ranging from 10 keV to 10 MeV under five idealized irradiation conditions (left lateral, right lateral, dorsal-ventral, ventral-dorsal, and isotropic) using the Monte Carlo code MCNPX. Dose results are presented in form of tables as supplemental data for practical use and comparison. The influence of anatomical characteristics, including organ volume, shape, location, and orientation, on dose distributions were evaluated. It would also be possible to make internal dose assessments using the computational rat model.     

Lyoluminescence dosimetry in photon and fast neutron beams

The lyoluminescence (LL) technique using mannose, a monosaccharide, is described. Dose-response curves for 60Co-gamma-rays (5 rad to 120 krad), fission neutrons, 5.3 MeV and 15 MeV neutrons (100 rad to 20 krad) have been measured. The close tissue-equivalence of mannose makes this material well suited for dosimetric use in low energy X-ray fields for radiotherapy and radiobiology. It also provides a cheap, simple and reproducible dosemeter in industrial applications of radiation (sprouting inhibition of onions and potatoes; control of insect infestation). After correction for the gamma contamination of the neutron beam the LL signal per rad in ICRU muscle tissue from the neutron irradiations has been derived and the relative effectiveness of the LL signal for fast neutrons in mannose has been calculated as 0.34 +/- 0.03 (fission neutrons), 0.63 +/- 0.07 (5.3 MeV neutrons) and 0.74 +/- 0.05 (15 MeV neutrons). These results are compared with data from other systems. It is concluded that mannose can be used as a transfer system in neutron dosimetry, if its variation in sensitivity with neutron energy is taken into account.     

Dose distributions in a human head phantom for neutron capture therapy using moderated neutrons from the 2.5 meV proton-7Li reaction or from fission of 235U.

The feasibility of neutron capture therapy (NCT) using an accelerator-based neutron source of the 7Li(p,n) reaction produced by 2.5 MeV protons was investigated by comparing the neutron beam tailored by both the Hiroshima University radiological research accelerator (HIRRAC) and the heavy water neutron irradiation facility in the Kyoto University reactor (KUR-HWNIF) from the viewpoint of the contamination dose ratios of the fast neutrons and the gamma rays. These contamination ratios to the boron dose were estimated in a water phantom of 20 cm diameter and 20 cm length to simulate a human head, with experiments by the same techniques for NCT in KUR-HWNIF and/or the simulation calculations by the Monte Carlo N-particle transport code system version 4B (MCNP-4B). It was found that the 7Li(p,n) neutrons produced by 2.5 MeV protons combined with 20, 25 or 30 cm thick D20 moderators of 20 cm diameter could make irradiation fields for NCT with depth-dose characteristics similar to those from the epithermal neutron beam at the KUR-HWNIF.     

Unwanted photon and neutron radiation resulting from collimated photon beams interacting with the body of radiotherapy patients

Monte Carlo calculations have been made to determine the energies delivered by photons and neutrons to the human body irradiated by collimated photon beams. The beams were monoenergetic and ranged from 100 keV to 40 MeV. The energy deposition in the body was sorted into two regions: inside and outside the irradiated volume. Most of the results obtained were for a beam size of 100 cm2 although some calculations were also made to 600 cm2 beams. The effect of beam size on energy deposition in the two regions was investigated for 60Co gamma rays. Graphs are presented which give the integral doses delivered by neutrons and photons to the two regions for therapy beams of various energies. These graphs can be used to calculate the integral doses which are delivered inside and outside the treatment volume for photon spectra from most medical accelerators. Calculations of energy deposition were also made for the spectra from two particular accelerators. These were done using Monte Carlo as well as by simply "folding" the spectra into the results for monoenergetic photons. The results obtained by both methods were in good agreement and indicated that the integral doses deposited outside the treatment volume by neutrons are more than two orders of magnitude smaller than those deposited by scattered photons.     

Neutrons from fragmentation of light nuclei in tissue-like media: a study with the GEANT4 toolkit

We study energy deposition by light nuclei in tissue-like media taking into account nuclear fragmentation reactions, in particular, production of secondary neutrons. The calculations are carried out within a Monte Carlo model for heavy-ion therapy (MCHIT) based on the GEANT4 toolkit. Experimental data on depth-dose distributions for 135-400 A MeV (12)C and (18)O beams are described very well without any adjustment of the model parameters. This gives confidence in successful use of the GEANT4 toolkit for MC simulations of cancer therapy with beams of light nuclei. The energy deposition due to secondary neutrons produced by (12)C and (20)Ne beams in a (40-50 cm)(3) water phantom is estimated to be 1-2% of the total dose, that is only slightly above the neutron contribution (approximately 1%) induced by a 200 MeV proton beam.     

Radiation parameters of 6 to 20 MeV scanning electron beams from the Saturne linear accelerator

Depth doses of the scanning electron beams from the Saturne Therac-20 linear accelerator at nominal energies of 6,9,13,17, and 20 MeV were measured in polystyrene using a thin window parallel plate ionization chamber. Central axis depth dose curves are derived and are analyzed according to the method of Brahme and Svensson. For each of the five electron energies, values are obtained for the most probable energy at the absorber surface Ep,0, the practical range Rp, the 50% range R50, the therapeutic range R85, the electron dose gradients, total collision energy losses, and other radiation parameters, and these are compared to corresponding values for electron beams from a 22 MeV medical microtron and a 20 MeV betatron.     

Sensitivity of different dose scoring methods on organ-specific neutron dose calculations in proton therapy

Scattered doses, e.g. neutron doses in proton therapy, are of concern in radiation therapy. Although measured data are the gold standard, Monte Carlo simulations allow a more realistic consideration of patient anatomy via whole-body phantoms. When calculating neutron doses with Monte Carlo techniques, the dose can be scored in different ways because neutrons deposit dose indirectly. The purpose of this study was to assess the differences in neutron dose predictions when using different dose scoring methods. Two methods were tested. In the first method, the organ dose was calculated by accumulating dose from each individual dose deposition event with a particle-specific radiation weighting factor applied. Alternatively, we applied a method where the calculation was done by averaging the dose over the total number of events irrespective of particle type and applying average neutron radiation weighting factors. In addition, we assessed the sensitivity of different neutron quality factor assignments based on two recommendations by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). We found that the scoring procedure can lead to differences in the organ equivalent dose of about 25%. As to the ICRP definition of neutron quality factors, the most recent recommendation results in about 10% higher organ doses.