Mentoring in epidemiology and public health training

In the past, mentoring was the job of one senior researcher in which the mentor molded the mentee in his/her own image. With public health being a very multidisciplinary field, mentoring may need to evolve to facilitate the needs of emerging scientists—including epidemiologists. The mentoring relationship can begin at many education stages, including high school. Involving students at all education levels acts as a way to recruit and nurture interest in public health. On the basis of the experience in the medical sciences, mentoring programs also can be used to recruit and retain high-quality professionals in our discipline. Mentoring functions nurture a young mentee with the bonus of greater workplace satisfaction for the mentor. Nevertheless, more understanding of what constitutes successful mentoring and how to develop programs that create great mentors is needed.     

Commentary: what contributes to a successful career in epidemiology in the United States?

The authors conducted a study examining perceived enabling factors and barriers to a successful career in epidemiology, the role of mentoring in facilitating one's career, where graduates are most often being employed, and key competencies for future epidemiologic training. During June to August 2001, they surveyed senior epidemiologists across the United States (n = 248) in four sectors: state health departments, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and schools of public health. The top enabling factors were dedication to hard work and having an intrinsic curiosity and a sense of discovery. The most frequently cited barrier was balancing career and family life, except among minority respondents, for whom an unsupportive supervisor was the leading obstacle. Influential characteristics of a mentor were high integrity and the provision of inspiration and encouragement. The top competencies anticipated for the next 10 years were skills working in multidisciplinary teams and in using modern information technologies. Important competencies varied somewhat according to work sector. These findings may be useful in training and career planning among aspiring epidemiologists and for educational policy development among organizations promoting training and mentoring.     

Staff patterns of epidemiologists in the health departments of 12 southern states

In November 1989, representatives from 12 States attending the Annual Convocation of Southern State Epidemiologists completed a survey to enumerate epidemiologists working in central offices of State health departments. Epidemiologists were classified according to education and program area. A total of 117 epidemiologists were identified, yielding a range among the States of 0.6 to 8.3 (median 1.9) epidemiologists per million population. The most common degree was a medical degree, followed by master's training in epidemiology or biostatistics; only 9 percent had doctoral training in epidemiology or biostatistics. More than one-third of the epidemiologists worked in infectious diseases, including acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and sexually transmitted diseases, and about one-fifth worked in environmental epidemiology. The areas of injuries, cancer, chronic diseases, maternal and child health, and occupational health collectively accounted for about one-fifth of epidemiologists. The results of the survey suggest room for further epidemiologic training among health department epidemiologists. The results also identify areas where additional epidemiologic input would be beneficial.     

Epidemiologists in the United States: an assessment of the current supply and the anticipated need

We provide 1985 estimates of the work force of epidemiologists in the United States, the number of graduates from training programs in epidemiology, and a projection of the future need for these health professionals. Our methods included a search of mailing lists from professional organizations, mail contact with graduate training programs, telephone interviews with experts, and a review of job announcements in professional journals. The study indicates that the current work force of epidemiologists in the United States is estimated to include 4,600 persons, more than half of whom are physicians; most epidemiologists are located in either a state with a major federal public health agency or one with a large population; and programs in epidemiology graduate an average of 475 persons with one or two years of master's level education and approximately 80 with doctoral-level education each year. After considering the factors that influence the supply of epidemiologists, we project a substantial need for more epidemiologists in the future than current sources will provide.     

Primary data collection: what should well-trained epidemiology doctoral students be able to do?

The increasing size and complexity of epidemiologic studies is leading more and more doctoral students in epidemiology to base their thesis work on existing data. While the analysis of existing data provides useful experience in complex analyses, it gives trainees little or no hands-on experience in the actual design and conduct of an epidemiologic study. As these students pursue their careers, most will eventually want to collect original data. I discuss what hands-on experience a well-trained doctoral-level epidemiology student should receive, and argue that we short-change our students if we do not provide them with the opportunity for primary data collection during their doctoral training.     

Developing senior doctors as mentors: a form of continuing professional development. Report Of an initiative to develop a network of senior doctors as mentors: 1994-99

BACKGROUND: Senior doctors report that mentoring skills are transferable to everyday medical practice and managing juniors. An analysis of views from consultants and general practitioners, who had trained together on a regional mentoring scheme, reveals significant potential for personal and professional development in such networks. CONTEXT: The Northern and Yorkshire Region Doctors' Development and Mentoring Network was set up in 1994. Since then there have been six programmes with 116 senior doctors participating. In 1997 there was an evaluation of the first four programmes. METHOD: Focus groups and postal questionnaire. RESULTS: There were responses from 71 senior doctors, giving a response rate of 86%, and responses from 78 professional stakeholders in 49 NHS organizations, a response rate of 54%. Results indicate that the programmes were highly valued by the participants, particularly with regard to: being part of a network of senior doctors; developing mentoring skills, and engaging in personal and professional development. The most difficult part of the programme was setting up mentoring networks for junior doctors, and reasons included: personal factors, such as levels of confidence in providing mentoring; cultural factors, such as juniors not wishing to be seen to need help, and organizational factors, such as lack of time allocated for mentoring. RECOMMENDATIONS AND ISSUES FOR FURTHER DEBATE: The positive benefits from the scheme raise questions about how to develop mentoring training for senior doctors. Issues include: developing mentors; who needs mentoring; mentoring and the organization; transferability of mentoring skills, and widening the network.     

Building Leadership Skills and Promoting Workforce Development: Evaluation Data Collected from Public Health Professionals in the Field of Maternal and Child Health

Professional development, including training and leadership skill building, is important for maternal and child health (MCH) epidemiologists. Current workforce development and training opportunities vary, but lack an emphasis on linking leadership competencies with MCH epidemiology. This paper describes efforts at the annual MCH Epidemiology Conference (the “Conference”) to promote leadership activities and workforce development, and recommendations to enhance professional development. An evaluation of attendee opinions on Conference workforce development activities was conducted during the 2009 and 2010 Conferences (70 and 66 % response rates, respectively). Frequencies and percentages were calculated overall and by attendee profession. Qualitative responses to questions regarding workforce and professional development were classified by theme in 2009, and a categorical question was developed for the 2010 evaluation. A combined 38 % of Conference attendees in 2009 and 2010 were MCH epidemiologists and 62 % were other MCH professionals. Attendees recommended more support and access to training, mentoring, and resources including job opportunities. Continuing education (41 %), special knowledge and skills-building training (51 %), and development of online resources for training (57 %) were highly recommended by attendees. Career (47 %) and leadership (49 %) mentoring by senior-level professionals in the field were also highly recommended. Promotion of leadership can be achieved by integrating the concept of leadership into the Conference itself; by publishing and disseminating MCH epidemiologic research in scientific, program, and policy settings; and by communicating the importance of epidemiologic findings to stakeholders and other non-scientific audiences.

     

Needs assessment and child care staff training

A model enhancing child care worker training links needs assessment and training into six steps: data collection, data analysis and presentation, staff training design, training, evaluation, and needs reassessment. Applying the model in a day care center resulted in improved worker knowledge, attitudes, and performance, and in a continuing forum for subsequent program changes.     

Mentoring and surgical training: a time for reflection!

Effective mentoring has an invaluable role in the development of surgeons at various levels and is frequently perceived vital in achieving career success. Its role therefore is only second to credentialing. However, the formal role of mentoring and learner support in surgical training remains non-existent. This is reflected in a paucity of empirical data on mentoring in graduate medical education which makes meaningful research even more difficult. This article reflects on these failings, explores the reasons for apathy towards mentoring in surgical training and why the attitudes toward mentoring remain casual and lukewarm. Furthermore the authors explore the literature on this subject to identify ways and methods of remedying the situation.     

Mentoring. It takes two

Under-representation of BME groups in senior NHS management positions is still rife, and the mentoring scheme is seen as a key way of tackling the problem. Over 900 top managers are now offering mentoring to BME managers, but take-up varies by location. There is some disagreement about the appropriateness of a programme directed exclusively at BME staff, but future schemes might target other groups.     

Mentoring junior healthcare administrators: a description of mentoring practices in 127 U.S. hospitals

A survey instrument about mentoring junior healthcare administrators was mailed to 485 senior-level executives-chief executive officers, hospital administrators, and presidents. Completed surveys were returned by 127 senior executives (26 percent response rate). On average, the respondents were 53 years old, had nine years of organizational tenure in their current position, and had 16.5 years of career tenure as a senior healthcare executive. The mean age of when the respondents first had a mentor was 28 years old. The average length of the respondents' relationship with their mentor was 3.56 years. Although healthcare executives believed mentoring benefits the healthcare industry as a whole, they reported that the benefits were even greater for the hospital where mentoring was done. Personal satisfaction was cited as the primary reason for serving as a mentor. In the 127 organizations represented by the respondents, informal mentoring programs were more prevalent than formal mentoring programs. Our findings suggest that healthcare executives in formal mentoring programs may be more likely to support mentoring than individuals who entered informal mentoring relationships. Those who reported being mentors or engaging in mentoring-supportive activities had a longer job tenure and career tenure than did individuals who had not served as mentors. The study suggests that mentoring--in particular, informal mentoring--is a popular activity in U.S. hospitals and is carried out by experienced healthcare executives whose primary motivation is personal satisfaction.     

The need for technical literacy in doctoral education: a preliminary survey

An electronic survey was sent to 1,026 rehabilitation sciences faculty members at higher education institutions around the nation to determine the relative importance faculty in the rehabilitation sciences placed on technical literacy skills in higher education. The survey contained a list of 55 technology and distance education skills in six broad areas: electronic searches and resources, computer productivity tools, Web-based instruction, teleconferencing, using technology to deliver instruction, and virtual mentoring. For each skill, respondents indicated the level of importance they attached to each skill as it relates to successful performance as a faculty member in the rehabilitation professions by selecting a number between 1 and 5, with 1 indicating that the skill is not at all important and 5 indicating that the skill is extremely important. The return rate of the survey was 17.6%. Although there was considerable variability for rated importance of skills within categories, results indicated that skills related to computer productivity and electronic searches were judged as most important to faculty success. Those skills related to newer technologies and skills related to troubleshooting were rated as least important. Discussion of these findings and implications for future research and doctoral instruction are presented.     

She's My Second Mum: Young People Building Relationships in Uncertain Circumstances

Youth mentoring has become a key element of UK youth policy in recent years and is now integrated into a range of policy initiatives aiming to tackle social exclusion. It is claimed by proponents of planned mentoring that the introduction of a mentor enhances resilience through the provision of a consistent, caring relationship that transcends professional boundaries. It has also been suggested that successful mentoring has the potential to enhance the social capital of disadvantaged young people by acting as a lever into education and training. However, despite the popularity of the concept, research findings consistently demonstrate that the theoretical base and empirical evidence of the value of the concept remain weak. This paper explores young people's perceptions of successful mentoring in relation to their social networks. It draws on findings from a recent Scottish study of planned mentoring interventions, and raises questions about the role of mentoring in assisting young people to renegotiate difficult family relationships. The paper uses the framework of social capital to explore these dimensions. It suggests that, in some circumstances, successful mentoring can assist in building up skills in dealing with relationships but that this is a fragile and uneven process.     

Roles and responsibilities of epidemiologists

Two distinct views of the roles and responsibilities of epidemiologists have emerged in a decades-long debate: one keeps professional practice constrained to science; the other adds active participation in public health policymaking. In defense of the narrower view are several claims: that epidemiologists lack expertise in policymaking; that advocating policy adversely affects scientific objectivity; that the limits of epidemiologic science work against translating results into policy; and that participation in policy can bring on personal attacks. In this study, each claim is addressed. Epidemiologists already participate fully in educational, research funding, and editorial policymaking and thereby have an experiential foundation in some of the basics of policymaking. Policymaking can enhance scientific objectivity because it requires not only the use but more importantly the improvement of empirical methods. Finally, the comforts of professional life are not the primary yardsticks of our responsibilities. Arguments in favor of active involvement in public health policymaking are presented. Epidemiologists have been mixing science and policymaking for a long time and there is a strong sense that the benefits of public stewardship outweigh the risks. The American College of Epidemiology's Ethics Guidelines support this view. Active participation in public heath policymaking will, however, require curriculum changes in graduate training programs. With additional training and a broader recognition that public health policymaking is an appropriate professional pursuit, epidemiologists can look to a bright and challenging future in the science and practice of public health.     

Peer education for advance care planning: volunteers’ perspectives on training and community engagement activities

Background Peer education by volunteers may aid attitudinal change, but there is little understanding of factors assisting the preparation of peer educators. This study contributes to conceptual understandings of how volunteers may be prepared to work as peer educators by drawing on an evaluation of a training programme for peer education for advance care planning (ACP). Objectives To report on volunteers’ perspectives on the peer education training programme, their feelings about assuming the role of volunteer peer educators and the community engagement activities with which they engaged during the year after training. To examine broader implications for peer education. Design Participatory action research employing mixed methods of data collection. Participants Twenty‐four older volunteers and eight health and social care staff. Data collection methods Evaluative data were gathered from information provided during and at the end of training, a follow‐up survey 4 months post‐training; interviews and focus groups 6 and 12 months post‐training. Findings Volunteers’ personal aims ranged from working within their communities to using what they had learnt within their own families. The personal impact of peer education was considerable. Two‐thirds of volunteers reported community peer education activities 1 year after the training. Those who identified strongly with a community group had the most success. Conclusion We reflect on the extent to which the programme aided the development of ‘critical consciousness’ among the volunteers: a key factor in successful peer education programmes. More research is needed about the impact on uptake of ACP in communities.     

The future of doctoral education in health administration and policy.

Doctoral education in health administration and policy has exhibited stagnation over the past decade in terms of enrollment, graduates, curricula, etc. However, this apparent overall stagnation masks some significant changes that should accelerate in the years ahead. This paper examines the current challenges for doctoral programs in health administration and policy in terms of program orientation, program content, student profiles, and the job market. Given these challenges, predictions are made concerning future enrollment growth in various types of doctoral programs over the next ten years. Finally, recommendations concerning program orientation, program content, student profiles, and the job market are provided overall and by program type. The two most important recommendations that apply across-the-board are to update data on doctoral education and to seek foundation support for a fundamental reassessment of doctoral education for the twenty-first century.     

Education in epidemiology: "The Times They Are a-Changin'"

"The Changing Face of Epidemiology" is a series of symposia sponsored by Epidemiology for the purpose of addressing topical issues that cut across specialty areas. We comment here on 3 papers presented last summer at a symposium ("Education in Epidemiology: Changing needs for changing times") at the 2007 meeting of the Society for Epidemiologic Research. These papers address current challenges in training epidemiologists, including the rise of molecular epidemiology, the ongoing need to redefine core epidemiologic methods and develop optimum approaches, and the increasing difficulty of assuring competency in primary data collection. We offer suggestions for educational programs and professional organizations on approaching these ongoing challenges.     

Manning the Battlements of Research Epidemiology

International trends and recently proposed changes risk confining the duties of epidemiologists to support of health services delivery or to serving as functionaries within exclusively clinical departments pose a threat to the future role and training of epidemiologists. It is argued that these attempts would weaken the academic focus for epidemiologists and compromise the system of recognition and rewards available through the hierarchy of the discipline. (Am J Public Health 1981; 71:70-72.)     

The Role of Mentors in Early Intervention Referrals: Overlooked Views of Pediatric Residency Training Directors

Objectives There continues to be a pressing need to increase referrals to family-centered early intervention (EI) for more eligible infants and toddlers with inadequate consideration for the role of senior, mentoring professionals. Methods To address a dearth in our understanding, a subset of Pediatric Residency Training Directors shared views on EI, referral, and relevant training efforts. Results Participating directors primarily reported limited understanding of EI. Greater knowledge of family-focused EI correlated with its perceived helpfulness (r?=?.420; p?=?.021), which positively correlated with referring a child to EI. Despite 67% of the sample viewing pediatricians as ‘most important’ in screenings and EI referrals, residents were perceived as only somewhat aware of EI referral and services, and only somewhat aware of differences between clinic options and Part C EI. Although nearly all respondents noted minimal EI exposure during training, only 43% felt this amount was ‘inadequate/insufficient’. The sample was fairly evenly divided in being ‘extremely’ or ‘somewhat’ interested in communicating with state EI leaders. Conclusions for Practice This preliminary analysis describes perceptions among senior medical professionals who may influence referrals via mentoring, training, and interdisciplinary collaboration. Findings inform next steps in terms of research, improving education for directors and residents, and collaborative information-sharing to bolster family-centered EI referrals to improve child and family outcomes.