Effects of Prolonged Standing on Gait in Children with Spastic Cerebral Palsy

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of prolonged standing on gait characteristics in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Six children with spastic cerebral palsy participated in this study with an average age of 6.5 years (SD = 2.5, range = 4.0–9.8 years). A reverse baseline design (A-B-A) was used over a 9-week period. During phase A, the children received their usual physical therapy treatment. During phase B, children received the prolonged standing program three times per week, in addition to their usual physical therapy treatment. During phase A2, children received their usual physical therapy treatment. Gait analysis and clinical assessment of spasticity were performed before and after each phase. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measurements was used to test for changes in gait measures across the four measurement sessions. Friedman's was used to test for changes in muscle tone (Modified Ashworth Scale) across the four measurement sessions. Stride length (p <.001), gait speed (p <.001), stride time (p <.001), stance phase time (p <.001), double support time (p <.003), muscle tone (p <.02), and peak dorsiflexion angle during midstance (p <.004) improved significantly following the intervention phase. The results of this study demonstrate that the gait pattern of children with cerebral palsy classified as level II or III on the Gross Motor Functional Classification System (GMFCS) improved by a prolonged standing program. However, these improvements were not maintained at 3 weeks. Further research is necessary with larger sample sizes to replicate these findings and determine specific “dosing” for standing programs to create long-lasting functional effects on gait.     

按摩疗法对痉挛型脑性瘫痪患儿运动功能动态变化的影响

目的探讨按摩疗法对痉挛型脑性瘫痪(CP)患儿运动功能和肌张力动态变化的影响。方法随机选择本院符合痉挛型CP诊断的54例住院患儿(男31例,女23例;平均年龄5.18岁),对其进行24周40 min.d-1的按摩疗法治疗,治疗过程未予药物及其他治疗。分析其运动功能的动态变化。采用SPSS11.01软件进行统计学分析。结果痉挛性CP患儿在24周的按摩过程中,基本粗大运动能力呈逐步提高趋势,治疗前后比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.01);按摩8周时,患儿臂近端的肌张力有轻-中度降低(P<0.05),而在14周时出现明显升高,与治疗8周时比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05),但在18周时再次下降。同时在上、下肢的远端评价,下肢的近端评价中也出现类似情况;按摩4周时,患儿肌力有轻-中度降低,但按摩10周后均出现明显提高(P<0.05),按摩14周后,患儿颈、上肢近端和下肢近端的肌力也显著提高(P<0.05)。结论按摩疗法治疗可提高痉挛型CP患儿基本粗大运动能力,相应提高其生活能力。     

Therapeutic Effects of Horseback Riding Therapy on Gross Motor Function in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Purpose: This systematic review examined the efficacy of hippotherapy or therapeutic horseback riding (THR) on motor outcomes in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Methods: Databases were searched for clinical trials of hippotherapy or THR for children with CP. Results: Nine articles were included in this review. Although the current level of evidence is weak, our synthesis found that children with spastic CP, Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) levels I–III, aged 4 years and above are likely to have significant improvements on gross motor function as a result of hippotherapy and THR. Evidence indicates that 45-min sessions, once weekly for 8–10 weeks, result in significant effects. Conclusions: The current literature on hippotherapy and THR is limited. Large randomized controlled trials using specified protocols are needed to more conclusively determine the effects on children with CP. From the current evidence, it appears that hippotherapy and THR have positive effects on gross motor function in children with CP.     

Factors Associated with Enhanced Gross Motor Progress in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Register-Based Study

Aim: To examine associations between interventions and child characteristics; and enhanced gross motor progress in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Methods: Prospective cohort study based on 2048 assessments of 442 children (256 boys, 186 girls) aged 2–12 years registered in the Cerebral Palsy Follow-up Program and the Cerebral Palsy Register of Norway. Gross motor progress estimates were based on repeated measures of reference percentiles for the Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM-66) in a linear mixed model. Mean follow-up time: 2.9 years. Results: Intensive training was the only intervention factor associated with enhanced gross motor progress (mean 3.3 percentiles, 95% CI: 1.0, 5.5 per period of ≥3 sessions per week and/or participation in an intensive program). Gross motor function was on average 24.2 percentiles (95% CI: 15.2, 33.2) lower in children with intellectual disability compared with others. Except for eating problems (–10.5 percentiles 95% CI: –18.5, –2.4) and ankle contractures by age (–1.9 percentiles 95% CI: –3.6, –0.2) no other factors examined were associated with long-term gross motor progress. Conclusions: Intensive training was associated with enhanced gross motor progress over an average of 2.9 years in children with CP. Intellectual disability was a strong negative prognostic factor. Preventing ankle contractures appears important for gross motor progress.     

Hoke跟腱滑动延长术治疗小儿脑瘫痉挛型马蹄足

目的 介绍一种治疗小儿脑性瘫冯挛型马蹄足的手术方法及其要点。方法 采用Ｈｏｋｅ跟腱滑动分离延长跟腱,使马蹄足畸形消失。结果 本组１１例共１７足,平均随访５年１１个月,均获得足跟落地的无痛性跖行步态。结论 我们认为该手术操作简便,矫形可靠,疗效肯定。是小儿脑性瘫痉挛型马蹄足较好的治疗方法之一。     

Determinants of Participation in Leisure Activities in Children and Youth with Cerebral Palsy: Systematic Review

Children and youth with cerebral palsy (CP) experience difficulties in their ability to move, problem solve, socialize, and communicate, associated with limitations in activities in all environments. They are at risk for lower participation in social and leisure activities critical in fostering friendships, developing interests, and promoting well-being. Little is known about involvement in leisure activities and their determinants. This systematic review aims to describe participation in leisure activities by children with CP and identify personal and environmental factors that influence participation. The following databases were reviewed—CINAHL, Medline, Cochrane, Web of Science, OTseeker, and REHABDATA—using the keywords participation, cerebral palsy, leisure, and recreation. The literature to date suggests that children with physical disabilities are less involved in leisure activities than their peers; activities are more passive, home based, and lack variety. Several factors influence participation in leisure activities, including age, gender, activity limitations, family preferences and coping, motivation, and environmental resources and supports.     

中文版脑瘫儿童粗大运动功能分级系统的信度和效度研究

目的 确定中文版脑瘫儿童粗大运动功能分级系统（Gross Motor Function Classification System ,GMFCS）的信度和效度。方法 共有来自上海三家康复机构的91名0-12岁脑瘫儿童参加了此项研究，选择35名脑瘫儿童测定GMFCS的重测信度；以66名脑瘫儿童为对象测定GMFCS的评价者间信度；分别以88名脑瘫儿童的粗大运动功能评估量表（GMFM）和54例脑瘫儿童的Peabody粗大运动发育量表（PDMS-GM）的各项测试结果为效标确定GMFCS的平行效度；对88例同时接受GMFCS和GMFM评价的儿童的测试结果进行结构效度检测，以GMFCS为应变量，GMFM五个功能区的百分比为自变量进行多重逐步回归分析，判断粗大运动中五个分区功能对GMFCS的影响程度。结果 GMFCS具有良好的重测信度（ICC值为0.99），同时具有良好的评估者间信度（ICC为0.95-0.98）；GMFCS与GMFM和PDMS-GM各项分值之间有良好的平行效度，Spearman相关系数在-0.57到-0.84在之间；粗大运动功能中的坐位能力和行走能力是影响GMFCS的主要因素，校正决定系数为0.709（p<0.001）。 结论 中文版脑瘫儿童粗大运动功能分级系统的具有良好的信度和效度，适用于国内对脑瘫儿童进行功能分级。     

A Systematic Review of Common Physiotherapy Interventions in School-Aged Children with Cerebral Palsy

ABSTRACT

This systematic review focused on the common conventional physiotherapy interventions used with children with cerebral palsy (CP), aged 4 to 18 years, and critically appraised the recent evidence of each of these interventions using the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine Levels of Evidence. The search strategy yielded 34 articles after inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. The investigated physiotherapy interventions included strength and functional training, weight-supported treadmill training (WBSTT), and neurodevelopmental treatment (NDT). A category of treatment dosage was also included. Strength training was the most studied intervention with significant improvements found in the strength of selected muscle groups using dynamometry, with fewer studies showing significant improvement in function. Functional training showed improvements in gross motor function, endurance, and temperospatial measures, such as gait speed and stride length. Nonsignificant trends of improvement on the Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) and gait velocity were found for WBSTT by a few studies with low levels of evidence (case series). Of three studies that evaluated NDT, one high-level evidence study, i.e., randomized controlled trial (RCT) found significant improvements on the GMFM. All studies reviewing treatment dosage had high levels of evidence (RCTs), yet found no significant differences for different intensities of treatment. These results indicate that the levels of evidence for physiotherapy interventions, particularly strengthening and to a lesser extent functional training, in school-aged children with CP has improved; however, further high-level evidence is needed for other interventions.     

Garment Therapy does not Improve Function in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Systematic Review

Aims: To conduct a systematic review asking, does garment therapy improve motor function in children with cerebral palsy? Methods: A systematic review with meta-analysis was conducted to review the literature. Inclusion criteria involved the wearing of therapy suits/garments in children with cerebral palsy. The primary outcome of interest was movement related function and secondary outcomes included impairment, participation, parental satisfaction and adverse outcomes of garment wear. Results: 14 studies with 234 participants were included, of which 5 studies were included for meta-analysis. Garment therapy showed a nonsignificant effect on post-intervention function as measured by the Gross Motor Function Measure when compared to controls (MD = ?1.9; 95% CI = ?6.84, 3.05). Nonsignificant improvements in function were seen long-term (MD = ?3.13; 95% CI = ?7.57, 1.31). Garment therapy showed a significant improvement in proximal kinematics (MD = ?5.02; 95% CI = ?7.28, ?2.76), however significant improvements were not demonstrated in distal kinematics (MD = ?0.79; 95% CI = ?3.08, 1.49). Conclusions: This review suggests garment therapy does not improve function in children with cerebral palsy. While garment therapy was shown to improve proximal stability, this benefit must be considered functionally and consider difficulties associated with garment use.     

痉挛型脑性瘫痪儿童磁共振扩散张量成像研究

目的运用磁共振扩散张量成像(DTI)技术,研究痉挛型脑性瘫痪儿童锥体束的扩散特征。方法21例痉挛型脑瘫患儿和21例正常儿童进行DTI检查。采用Functool2和DTIStudio软件处理原始图像。采用脑白质纤维束示踪法显示三维锥体束,分别在大脑脚、内囊及放射冠层面测量患儿和正常儿童锥体束的平行于锥体束方向的扩散率(E0)、垂直于锥体束方向的平均扩散率(λT)、平均扩散系数(D)、部分各向异性值(FA)和相对各向异性值(RA)。用配对t检验统计方法检验脑瘫患儿锥体束与正常锥体束的各项指标差异有无显著性,并比较观察两组儿童的彩色FA图和三维彩色编码张量图。结果患儿组与对照组锥体束在大脑脚平面感兴趣区(ROI)的E0、λT、D、FA及RA值均无显著性差异,在内囊后肢平面两组ROI的E0、λT、D值无明显差异,但患儿组FA、RA值明显低于对照组;在放射冠平面两组ROI的各项测量值均有明显差异,患儿组E0、λT、D显著高于对照组,FA及RA值显著低于对照组。患儿组脑白质彩色FA图上红色及黄色区域较对照组减少。三维彩色编码张量图显示患儿组锥体束内囊后肢及放射冠脑白质颜色较为混杂,边缘不清。结论锥体束扩散率及各向异性指标结合彩色FA图及彩色编码张量图,可对痉挛型脑瘫患儿运动功能障碍做出客观评价。     

Effect of Hippotherapy on Motor Proficiency and Function in Children with Cerebral Palsy Who Walk

Aims: To evaluate the effects of hippotherapy on physical capacities of children with cerebral palsy. Methods: Thirteen children (4–12 years old) with cerebral palsy classified in Gross Motor Function Classification System Level I or II were included in this prospective quasi-experimental ABA design study. Participants received 10 weeks of hippotherapy (30 min per week). Gross motor function and proficiency were measured with the Bruininks–Oseretski Motor Proficiency short form [BOT2-SF]) and the Gross Motor Function Measure-88 [GMFM-88] (Dimension D and E) twice before the program (T1 and T1′), immediately after (T2), and 10 weeks following the end of the program (T3). Results: Mean scores for dimensions D and E of the GMFM-88 Dimension scores (p = .005) and three out of the eight items of the BOT2-SF (fine motor precision (p = .013), balance (p = .025), and strength (p = .012) improved between baseline and immediately after intervention; mean scores immediately following and 10 weeks following intervention did not differ. Conclusions: Hippotherapy provided by a trained therapist who applies an intense and graded session for 10 weeks can improve body functions and performance of gross motor and fine motor activities in children with cerebral palsy.     

躯干肌强化训练对脑性瘫痪患儿平衡功能的影响

目的探索不同的躯干肌训练方法对脑性瘫痪(CP)患儿平衡功能的影响。方法CP患儿80例,分为常规组(34例)和躯干肌训练组(46例),常规组采用我科常规平衡训练方法,躯干肌训练组则在常规平衡训练方法的基础上增加对躯干肌的训练,两组其他康复治疗相同。由专人采用社会适应性行为评定ADL量表和GMFM运动疗效评定量表中平衡项目量表对患儿的平衡功能进行评定。结果常规组和躯干肌训练组治疗后ADL评分和GMFM平衡评分与治疗前相比有显著变化(P<0.05或P<0.01),评分普遍增高,且躯干肌训练组高于常规组,差异均具有非常显著性意义(P<0.01)。结论选择性强化对部分躯干肌的训练,即在加强前屈和后伸肌群训练的同时,增加躯干旋转肌群的训练,可更加有效地提高对CP患儿平衡功能障碍的训练效果。     

神经肌肉电刺激结合肌力训练对痉挛型脑性瘫痪患儿运动功能的影响

目的 探讨神经肌肉电刺激(NMES)结合肌力训练对痉挛型脑性瘫痪(脑瘫)患儿运动功能的影响.方法 脑瘫患儿86例.年龄4.0～5.8岁.通过计算机分层后随机分为研究组(44例)和对照组(42例).二组患儿均接受以Bobath技术为主的神经发育学疗法.研究组患儿在此基础上增加NMES结合肌力练,NMES采用电刺激仪,4个表面电极放置于患侧足背伸肌群肌腹处给予电刺激,20 min/次;肌力训练根据脑瘫患儿的运动功能状况,结合运动学理论、运动学习理论和神经发育学理论等进行针对性训练;1次/d,5次/周,连续6周.之后指导家长实施家庭康复治疗.治疗前,治疗6、12周随访时进行以下评定:(1)综合痉挛量表(CSS);(2)粗大运动功能量表(GMFM)中的D和E二项;(3)步行速度.结果 二组患儿的性别、年龄、粗大运动功能分级水平、痉挛型偏瘫和双瘫的患儿例数差异均无统计学意义(Pa＞0.05).治疗前,二组患儿的CSS评分、GMFM评分及步行速度比较差异均无统计学意义(Pa＞0.05);治疗6、12周CSS评分、GMFM评分及步行速度,与治疗前比较,差异均有统计学意义(Pa＜0.01).治疗6、12周,二组患儿CSS评分、GMFM评分及步行速度组间比较,差异均有统计学意义(Pa＜0.05).结论 NMES结合肌力训练能更好地提高痉挛型脑瘫患儿的运动功能.     

Changes in Muscle Activation Following Ankle Strength Training in Children with Spastic Cerebral Palsy: An Electromyography Feasibility Case Report

ABSTRACT

Children with cerebral palsy (CP) are likely to experience decreased participation in activities and less competence in activities of daily living. Studies of children with spastic CP have shown that strengthening programs produce positive results in strength, gait, and functional outcomes (measured by the Gross Motor Function Measure). No investigations have analyzed electromyography (EMG) activity before and after strength training to determine whether any changes occur in the GMFM. This feasibility case report quantified dorsiflexor and plantarflexor muscle activation changes during performance of 3–5 selected GMFM items following a plantarflexor strength training in two children with cerebral palsy. Increased plantarflexor strength and increased ability to selectively activate muscles were found. Little carryover to performance on GMFM items was observed. It is feasible to use EMG during performance on selected GMFM items to evaluate motor control changes following strength training in children with CP.     

Tactile Assessment in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Clinimetric Review

ABSTRACT

This review evaluates the clinimetric properties of tactile assessments for children with cerebral palsy. Assessment of registration was reported using Semmes Weinstein Monofilaments (SWMs) or exteroception. Assessment of two-point discrimination was reported using the Disk-Criminator® or paperclip methods; Single point localization and double simultaneous were reported from the Neurosensory Motor Developmental Assessment (NSMDA); graphaesthesia was reported from the Sensory Integration and Praxis Test (SIPT); and stereognosis was assessed using Manual Form Perception from the SIPT and the Klingels method (Klingels, K. et al. (2010). Upper limb motor and sensory impairments in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Can they be measured reliably? Disability and Rehabilitation, 32(5), 409–416) and the Cooper method (Cooper, J., Majnemer, A., Rosenblatt, B., & Birnbaum, R. (1995). The determination of sensory deficits in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Journal of Child Neurology, 10, 300–309). The SIPT and NSMDA demonstrated stronger content validity. Inter-rater reliability was excellent for SIPT (ICC = 0.99) and exteroception (k = 0.88). Test–retest reliability was excellent for exteroception (k = 0.89) and stereognosis (ICC = 0.86; 100%), moderate for SIPT (r = 0.69–0.74) and poor for SWM (k = 0.22). Together these assessments measure tactile registration and spatial perception. Temporal and textural tests are to be developed for comprehensive tactile examination.     

Test-Retest Reliability of the Gross Motor Function Measure in Children with Cerebral Palsy

The purpose of this study was to describe the test-retest reliability of the Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) in children with cerebral palsy. The GMFM was administered twice, within a one-week time period, to twenty-one children with cerebral palsy. The time of day, therapists, and evaluation setting were held constant. Intra-class correlations ranged from .76 to 1.00. The data suggest that the GMFM is consistent in the measurement of gross motor skills and that children with cerebral palsy exhibit stable gross motor skills during repeat measurement. This information will be helpful in future analysis of treatment efficacy using the GMFM as an outcome measure.     

Current Rehabilitation Practices for Children with Cerebral Palsy: Focus and Gaps

Aims: To describe the focus of therapy practices in occupational and physical therapy for school-aged children with cerebral palsy, and better understand whether it is congruent with recommended practices. Methods: A Canada-wide Web-based survey was completed by 62 occupational and 61 physical therapists to identify problems, assessments, and treatment interventions for two case-based scenarios. Data were coded using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) definitions for “body functions and structure,” “activity and participation,” and “environment.” Results: Physical therapists, in comparison to occupational therapists, were more likely to select interventions classed in the “body functions and structure” category (34–42% and 18–20%, respectively). Both professions focused on “activity and participation” (34–61%) when identifying problems, assessing, and intervening; attention, however, was mainly directed towards task-oriented activities such as activities of daily living and mobility. Participation in leisure or community-based activities received less attention (2–15%). The environment received limited attention for problems and assessments (4–25%), though it was an important focus of intervention (19–37%). Conclusions: While body functions and structure are well-addressed, other ICF elements, specifically participation, are poorly integrated into practice. The emerging focus on the environment in therapy intervention, by modifying the context rather than changing aspects of the child, is consistent with current approaches and evidence. Knowledge translation implementation initiatives are recommended to bridge identified gaps.     

Preliminary Efficacy of a Friendly Constraint-Induced Therapy (Friendly-CIT) Program on Motor and Psychosocial Outcomes in Children with Cerebral Palsy

Aims: Constraint-induced therapy (CIT) is effective, but concerns have been repeatedly raised regarding the generalizability, feasibility, and potentially intrusive nature of restraining a child's unimpaired upper limb. We examined the feasibility and efficacy of friendly-CIT, which uses home-based model, a caregiver-determined schedule, and gentle restraint, in children with cerebral palsy. Methods: In a one-group pre-post intervention trial, 15 children (median of age = 8 years, 4 months) participated in 8 weeks of friendly-CIT (36 hours). Motor and psychosocial outcomes were investigated. Results: Participants showed significant improvement on the manual dexterity subtest of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (p = 0.004); the how often (p = 0.01) and how well (p = 0.02) scales of the Revised Pediatric Motor Activity Log; and the functional skills score on the Chinese version of the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory (p = 0.002). For psychosocial outcomes, children with CP consistently demonstrated high engagement and increased playfulness (p < 0.0001) during the 8-week intervention. Parents showed no change in stress status and high satisfaction with friendly-CIT. Conclusion: Friendly-CIT is feasible and promising for improving a child's motor and psychosocial outcomes without increasing parental stress.