Analogical reasoning and postoperative outcome. Predictions for patients scheduled for open heart surgery.

We investigated whether postoperative outcome of open heart surgery is related to preoperative cognitive dysfunction. Patients ill enough to require open heart surgery frequently have gravely compromised circulation and, hence, possible brain damage. The Conceptual Level Analogy Test (CLAT), a new, rigorously constructed analogy test, was used to measure cognitive dysfunction. The results indicated that the CLAT, aministered preoperatively to open heart surgery patients, differentiated between patients having different types of postoperative outcome. A significant relationship between type of surgical procedure and poor postoperative outcome was also found; cardiac valvular surgery patients had significantly worse outcome than coronary bypass surgery patients. The incidence of good outcome (survival with no psychiatric complications) was 28% for cardiac valvular surgery patients with extremely poor preoperative CLAT scores, but 74% for valvular surgery patients with higher preoperative CLAT scores.     

心脏手术后精神障碍的临床分析

为研究心脏手术后精神障碍的病因、发病机理及防治措施，对２０５３例心脏手术病人进行了观察。结果显示，５４例病人出现精神障碍并发症，发生率为２．６３％；其中体外循环术后发生率为３．１２％，非体外循环术后发生率为１．４７％，两者间差异有显著性（Ｐ＜０．０５）。术前心功能状况较差者，更易出现精神障碍（Ｐ＜０．０１）。病人均为成年人，症状大多出现于２周以内，表现为躁狂状态、抑郁状态、精神分裂样状态及神经症性反应，经治疗后均痊愈。认为心脏术后精神障碍主要与精神因素、体外循环损伤、心功能状况、年龄等有关，强调精神因素所起的作用，提示应采取综合治疗及预防。     

Neuropsychological test performance, brain morphological measures and CSF monoamine metabolites in schizophrenic patients

Twenty-three drug-free patients with an acute schizophrenic psychosis were studied by clinical rating scales, neuropsychological tests, computed tomography (CT) of the brain and analysis of monoamine metabolites in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The psychological tests used were the Swedish version of the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence scale (WBI) and the Block Design test. The patients' performance in the Block Design test was negatively correlated to the width of the third and lateral ventricles. Test profiles indicative of schizophrenic cognitive impairment and left hemisphere dysfunction correlated significantly with a wide third ventricle, but not with the size of the lateral ventricles. Patients with a test profile indicative of left hemisphere dysfunction also had wider Sylvian fissures than the remaining patients. Neuropsychological test scores did not correlate with the CSF levels of the monoamine metabolites HVA, MHPG and 5-HIAA. Positive psychotic and autistic symptoms did not correlate with psychological test results, monoamine metabolites or with CT measures. The association between neuropsychological impairment and enlargement of the brain ventricles is in line with previous findings indicating that a subgroup of schizophrenic patients may be identified by neuropsychological and morphological methods.     

Cognitive outcome after bacterial meningitis

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate long-term cognitive deficits in unselected patients with previously diagnosed meningitis and to compare these deficits to neurologic and psychopathologic impairment. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-two unselected patients (mean age 52.5 +/- 17.1 years) were examined neurologically, psychiatrically, and psychometrically 30 +/- 11 months after the acute stage of bacterial meningitis. Results of psychometric tests were compared with clinical long-term deficits. Psychometric tests were additionally applied on 17 healthy controls (mean age 49.2 +/- 14.2 years). RESULTS: Neurologic or psychopathologic symptoms were found in 16 patients. Psychometrically, the speed of cognitive processes and psychomotor performance, concentration, visuoconstructive capacity, and memory functions were reduced significantly in patients as compared to controls. Verbal intelligence was less affected than performance efficiency. Patients with pneumococcal meningitis had significantly lower test results than patients with other pathogens. The psychometric test results were only slightly related with clinical findings of the follow-up examination. CONCLUSION: Psychometric deficits are frequent after bacterial meningitis, and their relation with neurologic and psychopathologic symptoms is loose. The pattern of neuropsychologic impairment accentuates psychomotor slowing combined with memory disturbances, and resembles features observed in subcortical cognitive impairment.     

The neurocognitive signature of psychotic bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: Psychotic bipolar disorder may represent a neurobiologically distinct subgroup of bipolar affective illness. We sought to ascertain the profile of cognitive impairment in patients with bipolar disorder and to determine whether a distinct profile of cognitive deficits characterizes bipolar patients with a history of psychosis. METHODS: Sixty-nine outpatients with bipolar I disorder (34 with a history of psychotic symptoms and 35 with no history of psychosis) and 35 healthy comparison subjects underwent a comprehensive neurocognitive battery. All three groups were demographically matched. RESULTS: Despite preserved general intellectual function, bipolar I patients overall showed moderate impairments on tests of episodic memory and specific executive measures (average effect size = .58), and moderate to severe deficits on attentional and processing speed tasks (average effect size = .82). Bipolar I patients with a history of psychosis were impaired on measures of executive functioning and spatial working memory compared with bipolar patients without history of psychosis. CONCLUSIONS: Psychotic bipolar disorder was associated with differential impairment on tasks requiring frontal/executive processing, suggesting that psychotic symptoms may have neural correlates that are at least partially independent of those associated with bipolar I disorder more generally. However, deficits in attention, psychomotor speed, and memory appear to be part of the broader disease phenotype in patients with bipolar disorder.     

脑肿瘤患者认知功能障碍的研究

目的探讨脑肿瘤患者认知功能障碍的特点和手术对它的影响。方法采用中文版蒙特利尔认知评估量表(MoCA)对100例脑肿瘤患者的认知功能进行术前、术后评估,并进行统计学分析。结果脑肿瘤患者认知功能损害率术前为48.0%,术后为62.0%,术后明显重于术前(P<0.05),术后以记忆能力(MEM)和注意能力(ATT)下降明显(P<0.05)。额颞叶肿瘤组认知功能损害率重于非额颞叶肿瘤组(P<0.05),额颞叶肿瘤组患者的视空间与执行能力、MEM、ATT和语言能力比非额颞叶肿瘤组患者损害更明显(P<0.05)。左右大脑半球脑肿瘤患者认知功能损害情况差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论脑肿瘤患者认知功能损害是广泛的。手术可加重患者的认知功能损害。MoCA对脑肿瘤患者认知功能评估有较高的灵敏度。     

PSYCHOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY IN PARKINSONISM BEFORE AND AFTER STEREOTAXIC SURGERY

In a series of Parkinsonian patients subjected to stereotaxic surgery, the mental function was studied by means of psychological tests. The purpose was to throw light on the possible postoperative mental changes which together with fear of speech disturbances seem to be the most important contra-indications for neurosurgical treatment. In the study, 41 patients operated on for Parkinsonism were subjected to preoperative and postoperative psychological tests (average observation period 8.7 months). Bilateral operation was performed in seven cases. The mean age of the patients was 60 years. The tests used were the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Rorschach test. In the series as a whole, no significant quantitative changes in the postoperative mental function were revealed by the two tests. The Rorschach test revealed as an interesting finding that all the Parkinsonian patients preoperatively showed some mental reduction and that there was no significant difference between the patients with paralysis agitans and those with postencephalitic Parkinsonism. Slight postoperative changes, viz. a diminished and more rigid activity, were demonstrated in three clinical groups: patients subjected to operation on the globus pallidus, patients with postencephalitic Parkinsonism, and those with unilateral affection in the dominant hemisphere. The results of the study thus seem to indicate that a certain reluctance should be exercised in offering stereotaxic surgery to postencephalitic patients and to those with unilateral affection in the dominant hemisphere. Apart from this, it seems justified to conclude that in patients who otherwise meet the indications, the risk of postoperative mental impairment does not constitute a contra-indication for this type of surgery.     

Neurologic and neuropsychological morbidity following major surgery: comparison of coronary artery bypass and peripheral vascular surgery

As part of a prospective study of the neurologic and neuropsychological complications of coronary artery bypass graft surgery, 312 patients were compared with a control group of 50 patients undergoing major surgery for peripheral vascular disease. The purpose of comparing the 2 groups was to determine to what extent neurologic complications after heart surgery can be attributed to cardiopulmonary bypass. The 2 groups were similar with respect to age, preoperative neurologic and intellectual status, anesthetic methods, duration of operation, perioperative complications, and time spent in the intensive therapy unit. Certain potential risk factors for cerebrovascular disease were more common in the control than the coronary bypass patients. The important difference between the 2 groups was that only the latter group underwent cardiopulmonary bypass. In this group 191 of 312 (61%) and 235 of 298 (79%), respectively, developed early neurologic and neuropsychological complications. By the time of hospital discharge 17% had neurologic disability and 38% had significant neuropsychological symptoms. In the control group 9 of 50 (18%) developed neurologic complications resulting largely from trauma to lower limb sensory nerves. Two patients developed primitive reflexes. Fifteen of 48 (31%) showed neuropsychological impairment on 1 or 2 subtest scores. Moderate or severe intellectual dysfunction was not seen in the control patients in contrast to the 24% thus affected in the coronary bypass group. The difference in frequency and severity of central nervous system complications between the 2 groups is likely to reflect cerebral injury resulting from cardiopulmonary bypass.     

Cognitive outcome after unilateral pallidal stimulation in Parkinson's disease

OBJECTIVES: Chronic high frequency electrostimulation of the globus pallidus internus mimics pallidotomy and improves clinical symptoms in Parkinson's disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the cognitive consequences of unilateral deep brain stimulation. METHODS: Twenty non-demented patients with Parkinson's disease (age range 38-70 years) were neuropsychologically assessed 2 months before and 3 months after unilateral pallidal stimulation. The cognitive assessment included measures of memory, spatial behaviour, and executive and psychomotor function. In addition to group analysis of cognitive change, a cognitive impairment index (CII) was calculated for each individual patient representing the percentage of cognitive measures that fell more than 1 SD below the mean of a corresponding normative sample. RESULTS: Neurological assessment with the Hoehn and Yahr scale and the unified Parkinson's disease rating scale disclosed a significant postoperative reduction in average clinical Parkinson's disease symptomatology (p<0.001). Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (using right/left side of stimulation as a between subjects factor) showed no significant postoperative change in cognitive performance for the total patient group (main effect of operation). The side of stimulation did not show a significant differential effect on cognitive performance (main effect of lateralisation). There was no significant operation by lateralisation interaction effect. Although the patients experienced significant motor symptom relief after pallidal stimulation, they remained mildly depressed after surgery. Analysis of the individual CII changes showed a postoperative cognitive decline in 30% of the patients. These patients were significantly older and took higher preoperative doses of levodopa than patients showing no change or a postoperative cognitive improvement. CONCLUSIONS: Left or right pallidal stimulation for the relief of motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease seems relatively safe, although older patients and patients needing high preoperative doses of levodopa seem to be more vulnerable for cognitive decline after deep brain stimulation.     

Psychiatric Symptoms and Subthalamic Nucleus Stimulation in Parkinson's Disease. A Retrospective Study in Our Japanese Patients

Objectives. With respect to postoperative activities of daily living (ADL), we retrospectively investigated associated psychiatric symptoms that influenced beneficial effects of subthalamic nucleus (STN) stimulation in our Japanese patients with Parkinson disease (PD). Materials and Methods. Twenty‐five patients underwent bilateral STN stimulation. Pre‐ and 3 months after the surgery, their parkinsonian symptoms were evaluated with Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) and Schwab‐England (S‐E) ADL scale. Stepwise multiple analysis was performed to determine the factors affecting postoperative ADL. Results. Eleven out of 25 patients manifested drug‐induced psychosis preoperatively, although their mean dosage of levodopa was small (366.4 ± 152.7 mg). Disease duration positively affected the severity of the patients’ psychiatric symptoms. Postoperative S‐E score showed a significant improvement compared to the pretreatment baseline in both of “on” and “off” medication states, as all their cardinal motor symptoms were significantly ameliorated. Preoperative scores for thought disorder and axial disability negatively impact on the postoperative S‐E score in “on” state (p < 0.01). Preoperative score for intellectual impairment was only a significant predictor of worse postoperative ADL in “off” state. Conclusions. The markedly lower dose of levodopa may suggest ethnic characteristics of our Japanese patients with respect to tolerance for antiparkinsonian medications. Preoperative manifestation of drug‐induced psychosis and cognitive dysfunction were the major factor that strikingly suppressed daily activities after STN stimulation.     

Cognitive functioning and psychiatric symptomatology in patients with chronic hepatitis C.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major public-health-care problem, with over 170 million infected worldwide. Patients with chronic HCV infection often complain of various cognitive problems as well as symptoms of depression, anxiety, and fatigue. Relatively little is known, however, about the specific cognitive deficits that are common among HCV patients, and the influence of psychiatric symptomatology on cognitive functioning. In the current study of 21 chronically infected HCV patients, we assessed subjective cognitive dysfunction, depression, anxiety, and fatigue and compared these symptom areas to cognitive tests assessing visuoconstruction, learning, memory, visual attention, psychomotor speed, and mental flexibility. Results revealed that cognitive impairment ranged from 9% of patients on a visuoconstruction task to 38% of patients on a measure of complex attention, visual scanning and tracking, and psychomotor speed, and greater HCV disease severity as indicated by liver fibrosis was associated with greater cognitive dysfunction. Objective cognitive impairment was not related to subjective cognitive complaints or psychiatric symptomatology. These findings suggest that a significant portion of patients with chronic HCV experience cognitive difficulties that may interfere with activities of daily living and quality of life. Future research using cognitive measures with HCV-infected patients may assist researchers in identifying if there is a direct effect of HCV infection on the brain and which patients may be more likely to progress to cirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy.     

Cognitive impairment after acute supratentorial stroke: a 6-month follow-up clinical and computed tomographic study

Summary To document the occurrence, time course, and predictors of global cognitive impairment following a supratentorial stroke, we prospectively studied 41 consecutive patients with acute cerebral ischemia and no evidence of pre-existing intellectual disturbances. The Graded Neurologic Scale and Mattis Dementia Rating Scale were used to assess neurologic and cognitive deficits within the first week, 3 weeks and 6 months after the onset of symptoms. CT was performed at each examination and semiquantitative measurements of infarct volumes and brain atrophy were obtained. Sixty-one percent of patients were found to be cognitively impaired within the first week. After 6 months this deficit had resolved in 24%, but was still present in 37% of individuals. Initial findings associated with a high risk of longterm intellectual dysfunction were: 1. moderately severe cognitive impairment, 2. diminished alertness in the acute stroke stage, 3. infarction involving the temporal lobe, 4. evidence of multiple brain infarcts and 5. pronounced ventricular enlargement. Logistic regression analysis revealed temporal infarcts and evidence of multiple ischemic lesions as the most powerful predictors of persistent cognitive impairment. By these two factors alone, 85.4% of study participants could be correctly classified regarding their cognitive outcome. These results suggest cognitive dysfunction to be a frequent sequela of supratentorial stroke. Its long-term persistence may be predicted on the basis of certain features.     

Predictors and outcomes of delirium

OBJECTIVES: To determine factors associated with the occurrence of delirium among patients undergoing surgical repair of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). METHODS: The sample included all consenting patients who underwent AAA repair during a 12-month period. Before surgery, daily while in hospital, and at 1 and 6 months after surgery, we assessed patients' mood, mental status and functional status. We compared delirious and nondelirious patients for severity of preoperative depressive symptoms, length of hospital stay and mortality. The effects of delirium on postoperative functional status were assessed in conjunction with postoperative depressive symptoms using regression models. RESULTS: The sample of 35 patients was primarily male and elderly; one-quarter had three or more medical conditions; and eight (23%) developed delirium after surgery. Postoperative delirium was significantly associated with preoperative depressive symptoms, alcohol use and cognitive impairment as well as with longer lengths of stay and poorer functional status at 1 and 6 months after surgery. CONCLUSION: Identification and treatment of patients with depressive symptoms, alcohol use and cognitive impairment prior to AAA surgery could reduce the incidence of postoperative delirium and the prolonged hospital stays and impaired functional status associated with it. Surgeons should consider using simple screening instruments before surgery to identify patients at risk and referring them for psychiatric evaluation and treatment. They should also consider including psychiatrists early in the care of high-risk patients to improve detection of and early intervention for delirium.     

The relationship of excess cognitive impairment in MCI and early Alzheimer's disease to the subsequent emergence of psychosis

BACKGROUND: Psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer disease (AD + P) identify a heritable phenotype associated with greater cognitive impairment. Knowing when the cognitive course of AD + P subjects diverges from that of subjects without psychosis would enhance understanding of how genetic variation results in AD + P and its associated cognitive burden. This study seeks to determine whether the degree of cognitive impairment and cognitive decline in early AD predicts subsequent AD + P onset. METHODS: 361 subjects with possible or probable AD or mild cognitive impairment (MCI) without psychosis were evaluated every 6 months until psychosis onset. RESULTS: Severity of cognitive dysfunction was a strong predictor of AD + P up to two years prior to psychosis onset. Cognition did not decline more rapidly prior to onset of AD + P. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals who will develop AD + P already demonstrate excess cognitive impairment during the mild stages of disease. Genetic variation and brain pathophysiology may lead to a cognitive risk phenotype which is present prior to dementia onset.     

Behavioral changes associated with deep brain stimulation surgery for Parkinson’s disease

Evaluation for psychiatric and cognitive dysfunction is a crucial part of preoperative assessment for deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery. All candidates for DBS should be treated for active psychiatric disorders, and the treatment team should also screen for past psychiatric history, which may predispose to postoperative psychiatric illness. A wide range of behavioral symptoms have been seen following DBS, including depression, hallucinations or true psychosis, mania, and impulsivity. Suicidal ideation should be treated aggressively. Cognitive changes may occur, but data are currently too limited to make predictions regarding subtle effects on cognition. However, patients with dementia may experience further decline in cognitive function following DBS.     

Analogy tests and psychopathology at follow-up after open heart surgery.

A study of 100 coronary bypass and cardiac valvular surgery patients investigated whether preoperative brain damage, as measured by the Conceptual Level Analogy Test (CLAT), is a major risk factor for postoperative psychiatric symptoms and mortality. Three cognitive psychological tests, including the CLAT, and psychatric interviews were given preoperatively, postoperatively, and at 18-month follow-up. Surgical outcome was specified as: Catastrophic Outcome (death or severe stroke), Psychiatric Complications, or Good Outcome (survival with no psychiatric complications). Inhospital outcome related significantly to analogy test scores, as did both surgical procedure and diagnosis of rheumatic heart disease. However, long-term outcome was unrelated to medical diagnosis and only weakly related to surgical procedure, but highly significantly related to preoperative analogy scores. The CLAT was a more consistent predictor of both short- and long-term outcome than any of the other ten variables considered (medical and surgical variables, inhospital outcome, demographic measures, other psychological tests).     

帕金森病患者认知功能障碍临床分析

目的 通过对帕金森病患者认知功能障碍及相关因素的评价、分析,探讨帕金森病患者发生痴呆的可能机制。方法 采用简易精神状况检查表,对177例帕金森病患者进行认知功能初步筛查,对其中可疑认知功能障碍者进一步行神经心理学测验。结果 177例患者中有33例(18.64％)可疑认知功能障碍,符合痴呆者15例(8.47％)。经Logistic回归分析提示,发病年龄(OR=1.176)与UPDRS日常生活能力评分(OR=1.251)为发生痴呆症的危险因素,而病程和抑郁为非危险因素。结论 帕金森病患者常合并认知功能障碍,早期主要表现为言语流畅性障碍、视空间障碍和记忆障碍,晚期则表现为智能改变和痴呆。神经心理学测验可较为全面、客观地反映患者认知功能。     

Intellectual function in patients with transient ischaemic attacks (TIA) or minor stroke

Psychological testing was performed in 25 patients (mean age 56 years) with transient ischaemic attacks and/or minor strokes and with angiographically verified internal carotid artery stenosis. The effects of carotid endarterectomy on intellectual functions were evaluated postoperatively at 2 weeks and 8 months respectively. Preoperatively the mean test values were below the normal level for all tests indicating a general intellectual impairment for the group as a whole. This may reflect multiinfarct dementia in statu nascendi . At the early postoperative test session some test results were statistically significantly worse than the preoperative. 8 months postoperatively the mean values for all tests had improved as compared with the preoperative values. This improvement reached a statistically significant level in 6 tests. When the side of operation was considered a pattern emerged: in the 12 patients with left-sided endarterectomies improvement was significant for tests mainly related to left-hemisphere function (Word Pairs Test, Story Recall, Trail Making B, Similarities) and in the 13 patients with right-sided endarterectomies significant improvement occurred in the functions mainly related to the right hemisphere (Visual Gestalts, Block Design, Digit Span backwards). This relationship between side of operation and improvement in lateralized functions cannot be explained by retest effects.
It is concluded that TIA's and minor strokes per se may impair intellectual function, and that reversal of deterioration and even improved mental state may follow carotid endarterectomy.     

Lateralized cognitive dysfunction and psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia

Our understanding of hemispheric asymmetries in schizophrenia can be attributed to extensive neuropsychological and neuroimaging research on this topic; however, it has yet to be determined whether lateralized cognitive dysfunction represents a single core trait in schizophrenia or whether the lateralized impairments are domain specific. To test whether lateralized deficits are core features in schizophrenia we examined performance across a wide range of lateralized cognitive domains including attention, fluency, recognition memory, perception, and arousal. We also examined the relationship between lateralized impairments and psychotic and affective symptoms to determine whether abnormal hemispheric asymmetries were possibly state-related. The sample consisted of 43 subjects with schizophrenia and 66 normal healthy comparison subjects without psychiatric illness. Schizophrenia subjects exhibited abnormal right hemisphere performance on a test of recognition memory and abnormal left hemisphere performance on a measure of arousal. These findings suggest that lateralized cognitive disturbances in schizophrenia do not represent a single core lateralized deficit. Regarding the symptom analyses, severity of positive symptoms was related to right hemisphere cognitive impairment (including fluency and recognition memory), whereas severity of negative symptoms was related to left hemisphere cognitive impairment (including fluency). Overall, our findings suggest that lateralized dysfunction can occur in both hemispheres in schizophrenia, and that the positive psychotic symptoms may relate more to right hemisphere impairment, whereas negative psychotic symptoms may related more to left hemisphere impairment.     

Factors associated with incident human immunodeficiency virus-dementia

BACKGROUND: Antecedents to human immunodeficiency virus-dementia (HIV-D) are poorly understood. OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors for HIV-D. METHODS: Subjects who are positive for HIV who have CD4+ counts either below 200/microL or below 300/microL with evidence of cognitive impairment were enrolled in this study. Neurologic, cognitive, functional, and laboratory assessments were done semiannually for up to 30 months. Human immunodeficiency virus-dementia was diagnosed using American Academy of Neurology criteria for probable HIV-1-associated dementia complex. RESULTS: One hundred forty-six nondemented patients were enrolled, 45 of whom subsequently met criteria for incident HIV-D. In univariate analyses using the Cox proportional hazards regression model, the following variables were significantly associated with time to develop dementia: cognitive: abnormal scores on Timed Gait, Verbal Fluency, Grooved Pegboard, and Digit Symbol tests; attention-memory, psychomotor, and executive function domain scores; and the diagnosis of minor cognitive/motor disorder; neurologic and medical: increased abnormalities on the neurologic examination, extrapyramidal signs, history of HIV-related medical symptoms; functional: higher reported role or physical function difficulties. Depression was also a strong risk factor, along with sex, hematocrit, hemoglobin, and beta2-microglobulin levels. In a multivariate model that used cognitive domain scores, covariates with significant hazard ratios included depression, executive dysfunction, and the presence of minor cognitive/motor disorder. CONCLUSION: Cognitive deficits, minor cognitive/motor disorder, and depression may be early manifestations of HIV-D.