Epidemiologic characteristics of rhinitis in Turkish Children: the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) phase 2

Rhinitis is a common problem with important comorbidities. In order to search the association between rhinitis, allergic phenotypes and other risk factors in Turkish children, a parental questionnaire about allergic diseases and risk factors, and skin prick test (SPT) with 13 inhalant allergens were performed in a population-based sample of 2774 children aged 9-11 yr. Bronchoprovocation testing with hypertonic saline (HS)and total IgE analysis were limited to a subsample of 350 children. Rhinitis was defined as a problem with sneezing, rhinorrhea, or nasal congestion when the child did not have a viral respiratory infection. The prevalences of ever rhinitis, current (last 12 months) rhinitis (CR), and ever hay fever were 36.3%, 30.6%, and 8.3%, respectively. SPT positivity rate was 20.4% among children with CR. Current wheezing and flexural dermatitis were significantly associated with CR. CR significantly increased the risk of asthma among both atopic and non-atopic subjects [odds ratio (OR), 3.98; 95% CI, 1.81-8.76; and OR, 2.79; 95% CI, 1.82-4.26, respectively]. The association between CR and bronchial hyperreactivity (BHR) was not significant. The multiple logistic regression analysis revealed family atopy (OR=2.25, 95% CI=1.79-2.83, p<0.001), current indoor heating with gas stove (OR=1.78, 95% CI=1.18-2.64, p=0.006) and dampness/molds at home during the first year of life (OR=1.70, 95% CI=1.25-2.31, p=0.001) as significant risk factors for CR. Turkish school children showed a high prevalence of rhinitis with a preponderance of non-atopics. The highly significant association between rhinitis and asthma independent of atopic sensitization emphasize the importance of non-atopic forms of rhinitis.     

Breast feeding and allergic diseases in infants-a prospective birth cohort study.

AIMS: To investigate the effect of breast feeding on allergic disease in infants up to 2 years of age. METHODS: A birth cohort of 4089 infants was followed prospectively in Stockholm, Sweden. Information about various exposures was obtained by parental questionnaires when the infants were 2 months old, and about allergic symptoms and feeding at 1 and 2 years of age. Duration of exclusive and partial breast feeding was assessed separately. Symptom related definitions of various allergic diseases were used. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated in a multiple logistic regression model. Adjustments were made for potential confounders. RESULTS: Children exclusively breast fed during four months or more exhibited less asthma (7.7% v 12%, OR(adj) = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 0.8), less atopic dermatitis (24% v 27%, OR(adj) = 0.8, 95% CI 0.7 to 1.0), and less suspected allergic rhinitis (6.5% v 9%, OR(adj) = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 1.0) by 2 years of age. There was a significant risk reduction for asthma related to partial breast feeding during six months or more (OR(adj) = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 0.9). Three or more of five possible allergic disorders-asthma, suspected allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, food allergy related symptoms, and suspected allergic respiratory symptoms after exposure to pets or pollen-were found in 6.5% of the children. Exclusive breast feeding prevented children from having multiple allergic disease (OR(adj) = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 0.9) during the first two years of life. CONCLUSION: Exclusive breast feeding seems to have a preventive effect on the early development of allergic disease-that is, asthma, atopic dermatitis, and suspected allergic rhinitis, up to 2 years of age. This protective effect was also evident for multiple allergic disease.     

Associations between home dampness and presence of molds with asthma and allergic symptoms among young children in the tropics

Existing literature has shown that home dampness increases indoor mold burden and is associated with increased allergic symptoms among young children in temperate environments. There is no report of any studies of similar nature in the tropics where conditions are characterized typically by high temperatures and humidity with rainfall throughout the year. To evaluate if there are associations between the prevalence of current asthma and allergic symptoms in young children (age 1.5-6 yr) with dampness and indoor mold in children's bedrooms in a tropical environment. A cross-sectional study adopting an expanded and modified ISAAC--International Study on Asthma and Allergies in Children--questionnaire for the evaluation of asthma and allergies was conducted on 6794 children (4759 responded--70%) attending 120 randomly selected daycare centers. Specific information on demographics, home dampness, and the visible presence of indoor molds were obtained. The prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were determined by Cox proportional hazard regression model with assumption of a constant risk period as recommended for cross-sectional studies. The calculated PRs were controlled for age, gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status, type of housing, maternal and paternal atopy, respiratory infections, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure, and food allergy. After adjusting for potential confounding effects, home dampness was observed to be significantly associated with current symptoms of rhinoconjunctivitis (adjusted PR 1.53, 95% CI: 1.00-2.33). The visible presence of mold was significantly associated with current symptoms of rhinitis (PR 1.55, 95% CI: 1.16-2.07) and rhinoconjunctivitis (PR 2.38, 95% CI: 1.51-3.75). Indoor dampness and mold in children's bedroom are important risk factors associated with allergic symptoms in young children in Singapore.     

Breast feeding and allergic diseases in infants-a prospective birth cohort study

Aims: To investigate the effect of breast feeding on allergic disease in infants up to 2 years of age. Methods: A birth cohort of 4089 infants was followed prospectively in Stockholm, Sweden. Information about various exposures was obtained by parental questionnaires when the infants were 2 months old, and about allergic symptoms and feeding at 1 and 2 years of age. Duration of exclusive and partial breast feeding was assessed separately. Symptom related definitions of various allergic diseases were used. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated in a multiple logistic regression model. Adjustments were made for potential confounders. Results: Children exclusively breast fed during four months or more exhibited less asthma (7.7% v 12%, OR_adj = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 0.8), less atopic dermatitis (24% v 27%, OR_adj = 0.8, 95% CI 0.7 to 1.0), and less suspected allergic rhinitis (6.5% v 9%, OR_adj = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 1.0) by 2 years of age. There was a significant risk reduction for asthma related to partial breast feeding during six months or more (OR_adj = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 0.9). Three or more of five possible allergic disorders—asthma, suspected allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, food allergy related symptoms, and suspected allergic respiratory symptoms after exposure to pets or pollen—were found in 6.5% of the children. Exclusive breast feeding prevented children from having multiple allergic disease (OR_adj = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 0.9) during the first two years of life. Conclusion: Exclusive breast feeding seems to have a preventive effect on the early development of allergic disease—that is, asthma, atopic dermatitis, and suspected allergic rhinitis, up to 2 years of age. This protective effect was also evident for multiple allergic disease.     

Prevalence and risk factors of asthma and allergic diseases among schoolchildren in Bolu, Turkey

AIM: In this study we aimed to detect the prevalence and risk factors of asthma and allergic diseases in children aged between 7 and 14 years old at rural and urban areas of Bolu, Turkey. METHODS: Questionnaire of International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) phase one and questionnaire including questions about family, demographic, socio-economic characteristics of children were applied to 931 schoolchildren who were selected by randomized sampling. RESULTS: In children, the prevalence of diseases and symptoms were as follows: wheeze ever: 15.5%, asthma: 5.6%, nasal symptoms ever: 41.4%, allergic rhinitis: 23.2%, itchy rash ever: 5.9% and eczema: 5.0%. In multivariate regression analysis, presence of allergic disease in the family was risk factor for wheezing (OR=1.74, 95% CI=1.19-2.76), asthma (OR=2.19, CI=1.06-4.52), allergic rhinitis (OR=2.68, CI=1.80-3.98) and eczema (OR=2.33, CI=1.17-4.65); living in shanties was risk factor for allergic rhinitis (OR=5.26, CI=2.1-13.16); a monthly income below $300 was risk factor for asthma (OR=2.54, CI=1.06-6.08). CONCLUSION: It was detected that the prevalence of allergic rhinitis and its symptoms was more common in schoolchildren living in Bolu. Presence of allergic disease in fathers or mothers and low socio-economic level increase the risk of asthma and other allergic diseases in children.     

Socioeconomic status and prevalence of allergic rhinitis and atopic eczema symptoms in young adolescents

Environmental factors are known to influence the development of allergic rhinitis and atopic eczema in genetically susceptible individuals. Socioeconomic status (SES) may be an important indicator of risk for these conditions. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Phase 1 written questionnaire was used to determine the prevalence and severity of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and atopic eczema symptoms in 4947 pupils aged 13-14 years attending 30 schools in socioeconomically diverse areas of Cape Town. Home addresses were used to stratify participants into five SES bands. Relationships between symptom prevalence and severity, and SES, recent urbanization and upward socioeconomic mobility were examined. Logistic regression was used to generate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) in order to assess overall trends by SES. The prevalences of self-reported allergic rhinitis symptoms and recurrent itchy rash in the past year were 33.2% and 11.9% respectively. Girls had a significantly higher prevalence of all symptoms than boys. The prevalence of allergic rhinitis symptoms increased from lowest to highest SES (overall OR for rhinitis symptoms in past year = 1.16, 95% CI 1.11-1.21). There was no significant trend in reported eczema symptoms by SES other than for the question, 'Have you ever had eczema' (OR = 0.88, 95% CI 0.83-0.93). Longer period of urbanization was weakly associated only with recurrent itchy skin rash (OR = 1.05, 95% CI 1.01-1.09). 'Socially mobile' pupils, i.e. those resident in the lowest SES areas but attending highest SES schools showed significantly higher prevalences of eczema and some rhinitis symptoms than pupils attending lowest SES schools. These findings may reflect differences in reporting related to language, culture and access to medical care rather than real differences in prevalence.     

Exposure to maternal smoking in the first year of life interferes in breast-feeding protective effect against the onset of respiratory allergy from birth to 5 yr

The aim of this study was to evaluate the interaction between the exclusive breast-feeding protective effect and the exposure to tobacco smoke at domicile in the first year of life, on the onset of respiratory allergy (asthma and rhinitis) in children until 5 yr of age. This is prospective cohort study, observational, institutional based. Three hundred children born in a public hospital of Salvador-Bahia (Brazil) were followed from birth to 5 yr of age. Data from 268 children at 60 months of life were analyzed. Occurrence of allergic symptoms were studied and correlated with gender, allergic relatives in first degree, exclusive breast-feeding duration, smoking mother, and presence of other smoker at home, considering the first year of life. Exclusive breast-feeding for at least 6 months showed a protection effect against the onset of respiratory allergy in children from birth to 5 yr (p < 0.05); odds ratio (OR): 0.33 (95% CI: 0.18–0.59). Breast-fed children for less then 6 months compared with those breast-fed for 6 months or more, presented a higher risk (OR: 2.34–95% CI: 1.4–3.74) for developing allergic respiratory symptoms just to 5 yr. The protective effect of exclusive prolonged breast-feeding on the onset of respiratory allergy in children from birth until 5 yr was lost when their mothers were smokers (OR: 2.50–95% CI 1.19–5.19). Therefore, the protective effect of breast-feeding in the first year of life on the onset of allergic symptoms until the age of 5 yr was confirmed. This study proposes a confounding effect of maternal smoking on this protection, exposed by a higher risk for present allergic symptoms until the age of 5 yr, in children exclusively breast-fed for 6 months or more, when their mothers smoked.     

Predicting allergic disease at age four using an atopy predisposition score at age two: the application of item response theory

When defining allergic outcomes in epidemiology studies, results of the skin prick test (SPT) panel are often dichotomized as positive/negative or categorized based on the number of positive responses. Item response theory (IRT) models, however, may prove to be a better alternative with the ability to generate scores that account for both type and number of positive SPTs. IRT was applied to SPT responses administered to 537 children at age two to determine predictability of allergic disease at age four. The children received SPTs to 15 aeroallergens and two foods. Atopy predisposition scores were obtained from the IRT model using the posterior distribution of the latent trait, atopy. These scores were used to predict persistent wheeze, rhino-conjunctivitis, and eczema at age four. Results were compared to the dichotomized and categorical (positive to ≥2, positive to one, vs. negative to all allergens) SPT variables. At age two, 39% of children had at least one positive SPT. All three allergic disease outcomes were significantly associated with IRT atopy scores: persistent wheeze odds ratio (OR) = 1.7 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.2, 2.3); rhino-conjunctivitis OR = 1.7 (95% CI: 1.2, 2.3); eczema OR = 1.6 (95% CI: 1.2, 2.3). In contrast, rhino-conjunctivitis was the only outcome significantly associated with the dichotomized SPT variable with an OR = 1.9 (95% CI: 1.2, 3.0). For the categorical SPT variable, all three allergic symptoms were significantly associated with positive to ≥2 allergens compared to negative to all, but no difference was observed between those with positive to one compared to negative to all. The IRT model proved to be an informative methodology to assess the predictability of early SPT responses and identify the allergens most associated with atopy predisposition.     

Increasing prevalence of allergic rhinitis but not asthma among children in Hong Kong from 1995 to 2001 (Phase 3 International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood)

There is a worldwide belief that the prevalence of asthma and other allergic diseases is increasing but the measures used in many studies are susceptible to systematic errors. We examined the trend of asthma, allergic rhinitis and eczema prevalence in school children aged 6–7 years in Hong Kong from 1995 to 2001 using standardized ISAAC methodology. There were 4448 and 3618 children participating in 2001 and 1995, respectively. The prevalence of life-time rhinitis (42.4% vs. 38.9%, p < 0.01), current rhinitis (37.4% vs. 35.1%, p < 0.03), current rhinoconjunctivitis (17.2 vs. 13.6%, p < 0.01) and life-time eczema (30.7% vs. 28.1%, p = 0.01) increased significantly. There was no significant change in prevalence of life-time asthma, life-time wheeze and current wheeze albeit a significant increase in severe asthma symptoms. We investigated a number of potential risk factors including sex, family history of atopy, sibship size, birth weight, respiratory tract infections, pet ownership and exposure to tobacco smoke. However, the increases in prevalence of rhinitis and eczema could not be entirely explained by the change of prevalence of these risk factors. The odds ratio OR for the study period remained significantly associated with current rhinitis (OR 1.31, 95% confidence intervals CI 1.17–1.46), current rhinoconjunctivitis (OR 1.63, 95% CI 1.41–1.87) and life-time eczema (OR 1.30, 95% CI 1.16–1.45) after adjustment for these confounding variables using logistic regression model. Further study is warranted to elucidate the factors contributing to the observable change in the prevalence of rhinitis in our population.     

Aeroallergen sensitization in pediatric allergic rhinitis in Singapore: Is air‐conditioning a factor in the tropics?

Singapore is a unique blend of a tropical environment with a high standard of hygiene and public health care. The objective was to define the prevalence, clinical characteristics, and environmental risk factors of specific aeroallergen sensitization in pediatric allergic rhinitis patients in this unique environment. The method adopted was a retrospective analysis of allergic rhinitis patients, undergoing aeroallergen skin prick testing (SPT), in the outpatient specialty clinic of the KK Children's hospital, from July 2001 to June 2002. A total of 202 patients were included, 161 (80%) males, 167 (83%) Chinese, age mean 7.6 yr (range 2-14 yr). The most prevalent clinical symptoms were: watery rhinorrhea 61%, blocked nose 61%, sneezing 52%, snoring 17%, and epistaxis 12%. SPT results were positive for house dust mites in 97% of children, pets (20%), molds (19%), pollens (15%), and kapok (10%). Mold sensitization was significantly more prevalent in households without air-conditioning (aircon), 49% vs. 10% with aircon (odds ratio 9.4, 95% CI 3.8-22.9). Polysensitization (sensitization to three or more allergens) was similarly more prevalent in households without aircon, 51% vs. 14% with aircon (odds ratio 6.4, 95% CI 2.8-14.7). It was concluded that indoor aeroallergen sensitization is the major associated factor with clinical allergic rhinitis in children in Singapore. Patients living in households without air-conditioning are at increased risk of mold sensitization and polysensitization.     

Prevalence of allergy-related symptoms in Singaporean children in the second year of life

This study describes the cross-sectional prevalence of symptoms associated with eczema (chronic itchy rash), asthma (wheeze), and allergic rhinitis (rhinoconjunctivitis) in 1026 subjects between 18.5 and 23 months old (median age is 21 months) in Singapore. The first 2 yr cumulative prevalence of chronic itchy rash, wheeze, and rhinoconjunctivitis were 22.1% (n=227), 22.9% (n=235), and 8.4% (n=86) respectively. In total, 42.2% (414 of 979) reported ever having any of these symptoms. Eczema, although prevalent, was diagnosed only in 34.4% (n=78) of children with chronic itchy rash. Children with this eczematous rash were also more prone to wheeze (cOR=2.0, 95% CI: 1.2-3.0) and rhinoconjunctivitis (cOR=2.0, 95% CI: 1.4-2.8). Similarly, subjects who reported rhinoconjunctivitis and chronic itchy rash were 2.4 times (95% CI: 1.6-3.6) and 1.4 times (95% CI: 1.0-2.0) more at risk of wheezing respectively. Family history of allergy was a significant risk factor for chronic itchy rash (aOR=1.8, 95% CI: 1.3-2.4) and wheeze (aOR=1.7, 95% CI: 1.3-2.4). Thus, symptoms related to allergy were already prevalent during the second year of life. Significant proportions of these symptoms are likely to be due to true atopy as strong relationship with familial history and comorbidity with other potential allergic symptoms were observed.     

Validation of a rhinitis symptom questionnaire (ISAAC core questions) in a population of Swiss school children visiting the school health services

The primary aim of the study was to assess the validity of the ISAAC core questions on rhinitis in a population of Swiss school children by comparing them to skin prick test results. Second, the positive predictive value in detecting atopy among children with rhinitis symptoms was determined. Third, agreement between parental reports of hay fever and rhinitis symptoms was evaluated, since earlier Swiss prevalence surveys had exclusively relied on reported hay fever. Material and methods: Two thousand nine hundred and fifty-four (81. 2%) parents of 7, 10 and 14-year old children filled in an exhaustive questionnaire which included the ISAAC core questions on rhinitis. Two thousand one hundred and twenty children also underwent skin prick testing against six common aeroallergens (grass mixture, birch, mugwort, D. pteronyssinus, cat and dog dander). The analysis is restricted to children with both questionnaire data and skin prick test results. Results: Sensitization to any allergen was most strongly associated with reported hay fever (OR = 5. 7, 95% CI 4. 4—7. 4), nose problems accompanied by itchy-watery eyes (OR = 4. 4, 95% CI: 3. 3—5. 7), symptoms occurring only during pollen season (March through September) (OR = 4. 9, 95% CI: 3. 6–6. 5) and a combination of these latter two symptoms (OR = 5. 8, 95% CI: 4. 1—8. 1). The association was stronger for a sensitization to outdoor allergens than for indoor allergens. The specificity of the various questions was high, ranging from 77. 5% to 97. 6%, but the sensitivity was low (2. 6% to 42. 7%). The positive predictive value for atopy among children with symptoms was 63% for sneezing accompanied by itchy-watery eyes, 67% for symptoms occurring only during the pollen season and 70% for reported hay fever. However, agreement between reptirted rhinitis symptoms and hay fever was only moderate. About one third of the children with symptoms indicative of seasonal rhinitis did not report the label “hay fever”. Conclusions: We conclude from our analyses that the ISAAC core questions on rhinitis are highly specific and therefore useful in excluding atopy. In addition they have a high positive predictive value in detecting atopy among children with symptoms, but they are not helpful for detecting atopy in a general population of children (low sensitivity). To monitor time trends in the prevalence of allergic rhinitis in Switzerland, questions on rhinitis symptoms as well as on the diagnostic label “hay fever” have to be included in a questionnaire because they contain complementary information since under-diagnosis of allergic rhinitis is common.     

The relationship among markers of allergy, asthma, allergic rhinitis, and eczemain Costa Rica

The association between allergy markers and asthma and allergic rhinitis is stronger in countries with a Western lifestyle than in rural areas of Africa and Asia. We examined the relationship among allergy markers, asthma, rhinitis, and eczema in a case-control study of 198 schoolchildren, 10–13 years of age, living in Costa Rica, a Latin American country. The geometric mean total serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) level in subjects with and without asthma was 465.0 and 143.0 IU/ml, respectively (difference = 322 IU/ml, 95% CI = 141.8–616.1 IU/ml, p < 0.001), and that in subjects with and without allergic rhinitis was 442.5 and 144.3 IU/ml, respectively (difference = 298.2 IU/ml, 95% CI = 125.7–581.0 IU/ml, p < 0.001). After adjusting for age, gender, and skin test reactivity to allergens, we found a linear relationship between serum total IgE level and the log odds ratio (OR) of having asthma. In a multivariate analysis, there was a linear relationship between skin test reactivity to allergens and the log OR of having allergic rhinitis. The OR of having allergic rhinitis was almost three times higher in children who had four positive skin tests than in non-reactors. Skin test reactivity to greater than five aeroallergens was an independent predictor of eczema in a multivariate analysis (OR = 3.1, 95% CI = 1.1–8.4). Although the geometric mean total serum IgE levels of Costa Rican children with either asthma or allergic rhinitis are higher than those of children with asthma or allergic rhinitis in most industrialized countries, the relationship among markers of allergy, asthma, rhinitis, and eczema in Costa Rica is similar to that found in countries with a Western lifestyle and different from that found in rural areas of Asia and Africa.     

Wheeze in children: the impact of parental education on atopic and non‐atopic symptoms

de Meer G, Reijneveld SA, Brunekreef B. Wheeze in children: the impact of parental education on atopic and non‐atopic symptoms.
Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2010: 21: 823–830.
© 2009 John Wiley & Sons A/S There is conflicting evidence for the relationship between parental socioeconomic position and their children’s asthma. The aim of this study was to investigate relationships between parental education and respiratory symptoms in their children, distinguishing atopic and non‐atopic symptoms. A cross‐sectional survey among 3262 elementary school children (age 8–13) was performed; data on parental education were obtained for 3213 children. Parents completed a questionnaire on their child’s allergic and respiratory symptoms, and potential explanatory variables including family history, indoor environment, and the child’s medical history. Subsets of children were tested for atopy (n = 1983), lung function (n = 2325), and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) (n = 880). Logistic regression was used to assess relationships of health outcomes with parental education. A high parental education was associated with an increased risk of atopic sensitization to indoor allergens (OR 1.31, 95% CI 1.02; 1.69). Studied explanatory variables did not influence the relationship. In contrast, a high parental education protected children from wheeze (OR 0.77, 95% CI 0.61; 0.97). This only applied to non‐atopic wheeze (OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.43; 0.99) and not to atopic wheeze (OR 0.89, 95% CI 0.60; 1.31). The protection from non‐atopic wheeze in children of highly educated parents declined after adjustment for household smoking and breastfeeding (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.58; 1.57). Similar results were observed for non‐atopic and atopic rhinitis. We conclude that children from highly educated parents are protected from non‐atopic respiratory symptoms, which is largely explained by a lower rate of household smoking and a higher rate of breastfeeding.     

Environmental tobacco smoke exposure as a risk factor for infections in infancy

Aim:  This prospective observational study investigated the effect of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) on frequency and severity of common infantile infections.
Methods:  In a representative sample of 926 infants, parental smoking was recorded at months 1 and 9 postpartum, and all infantile infectious episodes were recorded at 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months postpartum.
Results:  Both parents were regular smokers all through the first year in 107 (11.6%), at least one smoked regularly or occasionally in 492 (53.1%), and parents did not smoke at all in 327 (35.3%) families. Among mothers, 168 (18.1%) smoked perinatally. Infantile ETS exposure was associated with increased frequency of total infectious episodes (p = 0.025) and hospitalizations for infection (p = 0.007). In ETS exposed infants, birth in autumn and presence of siblings contributed to increased frequency of most infections and of hospital admissions for infection. By contrast, exclusive breastfeeding protected against the effect of ETS on total infantile infections (OR 0.982, 95% CI 0.965–0.999; p = 0.036), hospital admissions for infection (OR 0.980, 95% CI 0.961–0.999; p = 0.036) and thrush (OR 0.973, 95% CI 0.951–0.996; p = 0.022).
Conclusion:  Our findings point to harmful effect of ETS on infantile health and further suggest that this effect may be enhanced or diminished by other factors. ETS should be regarded as a preventable risk factor for infections in infancy.     

FcγRIIIa-V/F 158 polymorphism in Turkish children with asthma bronchiale and allergic rhinitis

Fc receptors (FcR) play an important role in immune regulation. This might be linked to the variability in immune response, therefore relating to the pathogenesis of atopic diseases. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the Fc γ RIIIa gene polymorphism in Turkish children with asthma and allergic rhinitis. The study included 364 atopic children (184 bronchial asthma, 180 allergic rhinitis) and 234 healthy subjects as the control group, aged between 5 to 16 years. Patients were recruited from outpatient clinics of allergy and general pediatric care. Plasma IgE concentrations were measured by immunoassays and skin prick test was done in children with atopic diseases. The Fc γ RIIIa gene polymorphism was determined using the polymerase chain reaction method. Distribution of V158V genotype was significantly different among patient groups compared to controls (for asthmatic children OR: 5.33, 95% CI: 2.80–10.23, p < 0.001; for allergic rhinitis OR: 3.25, 95% CI: 1.75–6.07, p = 0.001). Distribution of 158 V allele was significantly different among asthmatic children (OR: 2.20, 95% CI: 1.65–2.92, p < 0.001) and allergic rhinitis patients (OR: 1.77, 95% CI: 1.32–2.35, p < 0.001) compared to healthy controls. Our study shows that the V158V genotype in Fc γ RIIIa gene polymorphism may be a genetic risk factor for the development of atopic diseases.     

Risk factors in early childhood for sensitization to airborne allergens

To examine the association between environmental exposure during the first two years of life and development of atopic disease later in child-hood, 115 children sensitized to airborne allergens and 54 non allergic controls were investigated. Fifty-seven of the atopic children were skin prick test (SPT) positive to house dust mites (HDM). Information on exposure was obtained from questionnaires. Parental allergy was a more important risk factor for development of atopy than any of the environmental risk factors. Exposure during the 2 first yr of life to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and home dampness was more frequently found among the HDM-sensitized children than among the controls (OR = 2. 8, CI 1. 0-7. 3 and OR = 4. 6, CI 1. 4-15. 0 respectively). A combination of these two factors seemed to be particularly harmful (OR = 8. 7, CI 2. 3-33. 1). Similar but less pronounced effects were seen for children with other allergies. Later in life exposure both to dampness and ETS was of the same magnitude in the atopic children as in the controls. It appears that exposure to environmental factors during the first few years of life may trigger for development of atopic disease and that interactions may be of particular importance.     

�ʹ������ͯ�����Ա���������ϵ�о�

??Abstract?? Objective To investigate if there is an association between caesarean section and allergic rhinitis as well as asthma in Suzhou children and whether the association is affected by family history of allergies. Methods This study was based on the epidemiological investigation of asthma among children aged 0-14 years from Pingjiang area of Suzhou city in 2010. From 540 asthmatic children we selected 427 children aged 5 to 14 years?? 290 males and 137 females ?? the average age being ??8.46±2.3??years. Another 427 non-asthmatic children were chosen by 1:1 matching by the same sex and age with the asthma children ?? A total of 854 cases were chosen as the study population??Then analyze the survey data by using Chi-square test and Logistic regression analysis. Results Of the 854 children?? 388 were delivered by cesarean section??allergic rhinitis 158 cases??asthma 191 cases?? and 466 by vaginal??allergic rhinitis 146 cases??asthma 236 cases????After adjusting for potential confounders??caesarean section was associated with an increased risk of allergic rhinitis??OR=1.66??95%CI 1.21??2.29????Specifically??while approximately 2.6-fold higher odds of allergic rhinitis was observed in children with a family history of allergies??OR=2.58??95%CI 1.46??4.56????no association was observed in children without a family history of allergies??OR=1.42??95%CI 0.95??2.13????Children born by cesarean section had no higher risk of asthma than those delivered vaginally??OR=0.91??95%CI 0.68??1.22??. Conclusion The association of caesarean section and allergic rhinitis appears more remarkable in children with family history of allergies??However??caesarean section is not associated with asthma in childhood.     

The development of childhood asthma: lessons from the German Multicentre Allergy Study (MAS)

Epidemiological surveys have indicated that there has been a notable increase in the prevalence of both asthma and other allergic symptoms in children and young adults. Since it seems unlikely that genetic factors would contribute to the rising trend, environmental factors might play a major part in the development of childhood asthma. In a prospective birth-cohort study, we assessed the relevance of different exposures such as mite and cat allergen exposure, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure, early infectious diseases and vaccinations for the development of childhood asthma up to the age of 10 years. Data up to 7 years of age have been evaluated. Of 1314 newborn infants enrolled in five German cities in 1990, follow-up data at age 7 years were available for 939 children (72%). Assessments included repeated measurements of specific IgE to food and inhalant allergens, measurement of indoor allergen exposure at 6 months, 18 months and 3 years of age and yearly interviews by a paediatrician. At age 7 years, pulmonary function was tested and bronchial responsiveness was determined in 645 children. At age 7, the prevalence of wheezing in the past 12 months was 10% (94 out of 938), and 6.1% (57 out of 939) parents reported a doctor's diagnosis of asthma in their children. Sensitisation to indoor allergens was associated with asthma, wheeze and increased bronchial responsiveness. However, no relationship between early indoor allergen exposure and the prevalence of asthma, wheeze and bronchial responsiveness was seen. During the first 3 years of life, intra-uterine tobacco and consistent ETS exposure have an adjuvant effect on allergic sensitisation that is transient and restricted to children with a genetic predisposition for allergy. Children sensitised to any allergen early in life and sensitised to inhalant allergens by the age of 7 years were at a significantly increased risk of being asthmatic at this age (odds ratio (OR) = 10.12; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.81-26.88). Children with repeated episodes (> or =2) of runny nose before the age of 1 year were less likely to develop asthma by the age of 7 years (OR = 0.52; 95% CI = 0.29-0.92). Our data do not support the hypothesis that exposure to environmental allergens directly causes asthma in childhood but that induction of specific IgE responses and the development of childhood asthma are determined by independent factors. Indoor allergen avoidance is recommended as first line treatment in secondary and tertiary prevention; however, conclusions should be drawn with caution about the possible effect of primary preventative measures. Since allergic asthma seems to be a Th2-disease, immunomodulating factors such as early childhood infections, LPS-exposure or other factors influencing gene-environment interaction and individual susceptibility seem to be relevant for the development of childhood asthma.     

婴儿期食物过敏的预后研究

目的了解婴儿期食物过敏（FA）的预后及影响因素。方法对119例患儿进行回顾性研究,采用Kaplan-Meier法计算食物耐受的累积概率,非条件Logistic回归模型分析食物耐受形成的预测因素和其他过敏性疾病发生的影响因素。结果鸡蛋、牛奶耐受的累计概率在诊断后1年分别为31％、42％;2年为62％、63％;3年为80％、77％;4年后均可达100％。牛奶、鸡蛋过敏患儿的皮肤点刺试验阳性强度是持续牛奶、鸡蛋敏感的预测因素（OR=2．535,95％CI：1．159～5．543;OR=2．654,95％CI：1．302～5．410,P均〈0．05）。本组13例患儿发生其他FA,危险因素是持续鸡蛋敏感（OR=6．109,95％CI：1．818～20．527,P〈0．05）;4例发生变态反应性鼻炎,15例发生支气管哮喘,危险因素是持续鸡蛋敏感和呼吸道过敏症状（OR=3．596,95％CI：1．429～9．045;OR：4．235,95％CI：1．152～15．563,P均〈0．05）。结论至少75％的鸡蛋或牛奶过敏患儿在诊断后3年内可获耐受。10．9％、12．6％和3．4％的FA儿童发生其他FA、支气管哮喘和变态反应性鼻炎。加强持续FA高危儿的筛查和管理,可能有助于改善FA的预后。