AANA journal course. Update for nurse anesthetists. 2. Anticoagulation and spinal and epidural anesthesia

An increasing number of surgical patients preoperatively are taking anticoagulant medications. These patients are at an increased risk for development of epidural hematoma with spinal or epidural anesthesia. It is the responsibility of the anesthesia provider to understand and anticipate this risk and to alter the anesthetic plan accordingly. The purpose of this AANA Journal course is to update anesthesia providers regarding the common anticoagulants used for surgical patients, the risks associated with epidural and spinal anesthesia in conjunction with anticoagulation, and recommendations for the use of epidural and spinal anesthesia in anticoagulated patients. Antiplatelet drugs, oral anticoagulants, heparin, low-molecular-weight heparin, other new anticoagulants, and herbal medications are reviewed. When spinal or epidural anesthesia is considered for a patient who has been taking anticoagulant medications, the risk of epidural hematoma vs the benefits of regional anesthesia must be weighed carefully. Appropriate management of the patient extends well into the postoperative period and should include anesthesia providers, attending physicians, and nurses.     

Spinal epidural hematoma associated with oral anticoagulation therapy

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma is an uncommon cause of spinal cord compression. It may be associated with various causative factors, but in many patients, anticoagulation can be implicated. It is noteworthy that many of the reported cases were anticoagulated in the therapeutic range. Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma should be suspected in any patient receiving anticoagulant agents who complains of local or referred spinal pain associated with limb weakness, sensory deficits, or urinary retention. Early diagnosis and treatment are very important for the functional recovery of the patient. Spinal magnetic resonance imaging is the most suitable neuroradiological method for early diagnosis. Although primary management is the surgical evacuation of the spinal epidural hematoma via laminectomy, rare cases in which the patient is improving rapidly and progressively could be treated conservatively. A 22-yr-old man with a spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma who was receiving warfarin treatment for a mechanical aortic valve is presented in this article.     

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma causing cord compression after streptokinase and heparin therapy for acute coronary artery occlusion

We have reported a case of spinal epidural hematoma with cord compression in a 49-year-old man treated with short-term streptokinase and continuous heparin infusion. The sudden onset of back pain with subsequent neurologic deficits in a patient treated with fibrinolytic therapy alone or in combination with an anticoagulant should prompt an evaluation for spinal epidural hematoma with associated cord compression. The risk of combined fibrinolytic and anticoagulant therapy is not clear and warrants further evaluation.     

Warfarin-related epidural hematoma: a case report

Spinal epidural hematomas are rare, with trauma being the most common cause. Spinal epidural hematomas caused by coagulation dysfunction are even rarer; however, long-term warfarin therapy increases the risk. The clinical manifestations of spinal epidural hematoma are neurological deficits below the corresponding spinal cord segment level. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the preferred method for diagnosis, and the main treatment for epidural hematoma with typical symptoms is urgent decompression of the lumbar spine. We describe an almost 80-year-old female patient who received long-term oral warfarin therapy for atrial fibrillation. She developed sudden onset waist pain, and 2 days later, she developed pain and weakness in both lower limbs. Computed tomography (CT) of the thoracolumbar spine showed no obvious hematoma. Eight days after admission, contrast-enhanced CT of the thoracolumbar spine showed intraspinal hematomas at T5–T8 and T12–L2 levels. We performed T3–T7 laminectomy, T5–T8 hematoma removal, and spinal dural repair. The clinical symptoms did not improve significantly, postoperatively. The low incidence of spinal epidural hematoma after anticoagulation treatment means this condition is not recognized timely, and it is misdiagnosed easily. Clinicians should consider this condition when patients treated with anticoagulants have neurological deficits below a spinal segmental plane.     

Spinal epidural hematoma complicating thrombolytic therapy with tissue plasminogen activator--a case report

Patients who receive thrombolytic therapy are at risk of central nervous system (CNS) hemorrhage, and this diagnosis must be sought in any patient who develops neurologic complaints after thrombolysis and anticoagulation. Early imaging and neurosurgical consultation are essential to improve outcome after hemorrhage occurs. We describe a patient who developed spinal epidural hematoma (SEH) after thrombolysis and anticoagulation for acute myocardial infarction. Delay in diagnosis and management may have contributed to a poor outcome. The literature on SEH is reviewed, and approaches to improve the prognosis of patients suffering CNS hemorrhage after thrombolysis are discussed.     

Low back pain due to spinal chronic subdural hematoma mimicking intradural tumor in the lumbar area: a case report and literature review.

Although magnetic resonance imaging has dramatically enhanced the ability to diagnose spinal mass lesions, some lesions remain difficult to diagnose. We report a spinal chronic subdural hematoma that comprised the cauda equina ventrally in the lumbar area in a 51-year-old man who was under anticoagulant therapy. Low back pain was the only symptom of the patient after sports activity. Surgical treatment was performed 2 months after the onset of symptoms. Intraoperative view showed chronic subdural hematoma with abnormal enlarged dural vascularization. The patient had no preoperative and postoperative neurologic deficit. Low back pain with sudden onset after minor trauma refractory to medical treatment must be investigated with magnetic resonance imaging in patients under anticoagulant therapy for spinal hematoma because of the possibility of spinal chronic subdural hematoma.     

急性硬脊膜外血肿的诊治

目的 研究急性硬脊膜外血肿的原因、临床表现、影像学特点及治疗方法。方法 对10a来经手术治疗的32例急性硬脊膜外血肿的病因、临床表现、MRI、DSA检查情况、手术治疗和随访结果进行分析。结果 32例病人中有26例直接手术清除血肿；6例先栓塞硬脊膜动静脉瘘（AVF）的供血动脉后，再手术清除血肿并切除瘘口。随访2－9a。神经系统恢复到正常情况11例；有轻度神经系统改变但生活可以自理15例；需他人帮助者4例；2例因血肿压迫时间，术后双下肢瘫痪及尿留渚留未改善；本组无死亡。结论 急性硬脊膜外血肿的早期诊断和治疗是提高疗效的关键。脊髓MRI检查是诊断急性硬脊膜外血肿的首选方法，清除血肿减轻其对脊髓的压迫是治疗本病的唯一有效方法、大的、高血流量的AVF术前栓塞供血动脉可减少术中出血。     

Epidural hematoma associated with dextran infusion

The authors describe a case of epidural hematoma in association with dextran infusion in a patient who had undergone a peripheral vascular operation with epidural analgesia. Possible mechanisms for the anticoagulant effect of dextran and guidelines for the use of anticoagulant therapy in patients undergoing epidural anesthesia are discussed.     

Locoregional anesthesia and anticoagulation

Spinal hematoma is a rare and potentially catastrophic complication of spinal or epidural anesthesia. Risk factors include traumatic needle/catheter placement, sustained anticoagulation in an indwelling neuraxial catheter, and catheter removal during therapeutic levels of anticoagulation. Generally, a patient’s coagulation status should be optimized at the time of spinal or epidural needle/catheter placement, and the level of anticoagulation should be monitored during epidural catheterization. Signs of cord compression, such as severe back pain, progression of numbness or weakness, and bowel and bladder dysfunction, warrant immediate radiographic evaluation. A delay in diagnosis and intervention of spinal hematoma may lead to irreversible cord ischemia.     

Complication rare de la coloscopie chez un patient sous anticoagulant : hémopéritoine par rupture d’un hématome sous-capsulaire de la rate

Nowadays, diagnostic and therapeutic colonoscopy is an invasive medical technique that is commonly practiced. However, the colon perforation and gastrointestinal bleeding are the main complications. The occurrence of hemoperitoneum due to rupture of a subcapsular hematoma of spleen is an extremely rare complication and potentially fatal colonoscopy. Both slightly negligible unnoticed splenic trauma and anticoagulant therapy are causal factors. We present the case of a subcapsular hematoma of spleen after colonoscopy, occurred in a patient of 70 years carrying a mechanical mitral valve treated by acenocoumarol. The requirement of obtaining a rapid and efficient anticoagulation and hemodynamic instability justified the splenectomy. The outcome was favorable. Through this clinical case, we discuss the methods and modalities of care for such a complication.     

Delayed traumatic spinal epidural hematoma with spontaneous resolution of symptoms

Post-traumatic spinal epidural hematomas are uncommon, usually requiring emergent neurosurgical evacuation. We present a symptomatic delayed post-traumatic epidural hematoma of the T-spine that resolved within hours of administration of high dose steroids. A 22-year-old man presented 10 days after sustaining blunt trauma during a motor vehicle crash. He developed signs of acute cord compression with loss of sensation and motor function in bilateral lower extremities with priapism. Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated a spinal epidural hematoma with 50% canal stenosis at the T4 level. His symptoms improved 1 h after the administration of high dose steroids. All symptoms resolved completely while the patient was in the Emergency Department and he was treated conservatively by Neurosurgery with no further sequelae. Thoracic spinal epidural hematoma is an uncommon condition that may present in delayed fashion after trauma with significant neurologic compromise. If neurologic symptoms improve with initial steroid therapy, patients with this condition may be treated conservatively with steroids and observation.     

AANA Journal course: update for nurse anesthetists--low molecular weight heparin: pharmacology and regional anesthetic implications

Low molecular weight heparins were first introduced in the United States in May 1993 as an alternative to currently available anticoagulant therapy. Like standard heparin, these anticoagulants inhibit activation of a number of coagulation enzymes, but low molecular weight heparins have their primary inhibitory effect on factor Xa. A decrease in plasma protein binding by low molecular weight heparin results in greater bioavailability and a more predictable therapeutic response than that of standard heparin. Although drug action is not measurable by commonly available laboratory tests of coagulation, greater predictability of drug response led to acceptance of these agents for perioperative thromboprophylaxis. The introduction of low molecular weight heparin into the perioperative surgical management of patients also has influenced perioperative anesthetic care. Postmarketing reports of the formation of spinal epidural hematoma when these agents were used concurrently with regional anesthesia prompted the US Food and Drug Administration to issue an advisory to anesthesia providers. This Journal course includes the pharmacology of the class of drugs known as low molecular weight heparins, the incidence and risk factors for the development of spinal or epidural hematoma, and current recommendations for the use of these anticoagulants in conjunction with spinal or epidural anesthesia. Guidelines for the postoperative use of indwelling spinal or epidural catheters in patients who receive this drug therapy in the course of their perioperative care are presented.     

梗死体积及相关生化指标对心源性卒中抗凝治疗后早期出血性转化的预测价值

目的探讨心源性脑卒中患者抗凝治疗后出血性转化与治疗前MRI梗死体积及相关生化指标的相关性。方法2017年3月至2020年3月心源性卒中行抗凝治疗的患者306例,其中69例接受利伐沙班治疗,57倒接受达比加群治疗,120例接受华法林治疗,60例接受阿司匹林治疗。所有患者入院时均行头颅MRI及相关生化指标检查,入组30 d行磁共振磁敏感成像明确是否有出血性转化。结果利伐沙班组出血性转化发生率为21.7%,达比加群组发生率为31.6%,华法林组发生率为25.6%,阿司匹林组发生率为0%,D-二聚体、空腹血糖、MRI梗死体积对抗凝剂治疗心源性卒中出血性转化具有诊断效应(P<0.05)。结论D-二聚体、空腹血糖及MRI梗死体积对心源性卒中抗凝治疗后出血性转化具有预测价值。     

A Case Report: An Acute Spinal Epidural Hematoma after Acupuncture Mimicking Stroke

BackgroundSpinal epidural hematoma (SEH) after acupuncture is rare and may present with acute or subacute onset and varied symptoms, making it difficult to diagnose. This condition can mimic acute stroke, so it is vital to establish a clear diagnosis before considering thrombolytic therapy, which could be disastrous if applied inappropriately.Case ReportWe describe a 52-year-old man who presented to our emergency department (ED) with acute onset of unilateral weakness of the limbs for 3.5 h immediately after receiving acupuncture at the bilateral neck and back. The acute stroke team was activated. In the ED, computer tomography angiography from the aortic arch to the head revealed spinal epidural hematoma. The patient was admitted to the ward for conservative treatment and was discharged with subtle residual symptoms of arm soreness 5 days later.Why Should an Emergency Physician Be Aware of This?Acute spinal epidural hematoma rarely presents with unilateral weakness of the limbs, mimicking a stroke. Because inappropriate thrombolysis can lead to devastating symptoms, spinal epidural hematoma should be excluded when evaluating an acute stroke patient with a history of acupuncture who is a possible candidate for thrombolytic therapy.     

Acute spinal cord infarction after multilevel en bloc corpectomy: a case report and literature review

Spinal cord infarction (SCI) is a catastrophic neurologic deficit following spine surgery. Because of the opposite management regimens used for SCI and acute epidural hematoma, accurate diagnosis of SCI is of great importance to maximally reserve neurologic functions and improve outcomes. A 21-year-old man developed acute paralysis and sensory deficits of the bilateral lower limbs shortly after undergoing two-stage combined posterior and anterior multilevel en bloc corpectomy. An emergency second-look surgery revealed wide-spectrum blackness of the thecal sac with no signs of an epidural hematoma. The patient underwent anticoagulation therapy, ventilation support, microcirculation perfusion, and fluid optimization. He regained an ambulatory status without other severe complications. Upon discharge, his muscle strength had returned to grade 4 and his Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance score had decreased to 0. At the final 48-month follow-up, the implants were in good position without local recurrence, and the patient was able to lead an independent life and work in his full capacity. An epidural hematoma did not appear to be the cause of SCI after spinal tumor surgery in this case; however, SCI was a possible reason for the acute paralysis. Anticoagulation treatment with adjuvant therapies may be an effective option in managing SCI.     

Anticoagulation in elective surgery.

Several categories of patients may be receiving anticoagulation therapy and require surgery. Many patients take cardioprotective aspirin or warfarin for atrial fibrillation, the presence of a mechanical heart valve, prior thromboembolism, a documented left ventricular thrombus, or a history of venous thromboembolism with or without a pulmonary embolism. Inpatients may be receiving injectable forms of anticoagulation to reduce risk of deep venous thrombosis or for other conditions, such as atrial fibrillation. Patients receiving any type of anticoagulation present a problem when they require surgery because the interruption of anticoagulant therapy increases their risk of thromboembolism and stroke (Schanbacher & Bennett, 2000). Rational decisions regarding the appropriateness of perioperative anticoagulation depend on individual patient factors and can only be made when the risk of perioperative thromboembolism is balanced against the risk of perioperative bleeding.     

心脏瓣膜置换术后应用抗凝药物的护理干预和观察

目的:探讨心脏瓣膜置换术后应用抗凝药物的护理干预措施和效果。方法:对60例机械瓣膜置换术患者应用抗凝药物,进行护理干预和健康教育,定期复查PTT、PTA,严密观察,以防用药不当出现血栓或出血等并发症。结果:60例患者未发生栓塞,2例出现鼻衄,1例出现便血,通过调整药量症状均消失。定期复查凝血四项数据波动小,相关并发症出现晚,患者再次入院时间明显推迟。结论:采用针对机械瓣膜置换术后系统科学的抗凝护理干预措施,实现患者及其家属的主动配合并学会参与共同完成抗凝监测。     

Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma causing Brown-Sequard syndrome: case report and review of the literature

Spinal epidural hematoma is a rare clinical entity and has a varied etiology. Urgent surgical evacuation to prevent serious permanent neurologic deficits is generally indicated. We describe a case of a 52-year-old man, on oral anticoagulant therapy, who presented with Brown-Sequard syndrome due to spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma at the cervicothoracic junction. This diagnosis was initially overlooked, given the asymmetric pattern of deficit. He later underwent cervical laminectomy and had complete restoration of neurologic function.     

非瓣膜性房颤脑梗死无症状性出血转化患者抗栓治疗疗效分析

目的:通过前瞻性观察性研究分析非瓣膜性房颤脑梗死无症状性出血转化患者的临床资料,探讨合并房颤的急性脑梗死出血转化患者行低剂量低分子肝素(low-molecular-weight heparin,LMWH)抗凝治疗的疗效。方法:纳入2016年1月至2018年11月在如皋市人民医院神经内科住院的非瓣膜性房颤脑梗死无症状性出血转化患者120例,根据是否予以低剂量低分子肝素抗凝治疗,分为抗凝组(n=56)和对照组(n=64),分析入组患者急性期的临床资料,随访30 d,以美国国立卫生研究院卒中量表(the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale,NIHSS)减分值、30 d改良Rankin(mRs)评分、30 d良好预后(mRs 2分)、再发脑梗死、其他栓塞事件、颅内外出血事件为主要观察指标。结果:抗凝组和对照组在NIHSS减分值、再发脑梗死(1.79%vs 14.06%)差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);30 d mRs评分、30 d良好预后、颅内外出血事件及其他栓塞事件差异无统计学意义;单因素(抗凝治疗)分析显示,NIHSS减分值(OR=2.41,95%CI 1.30~3.51)、再发脑梗死(OR=0.10,95%CI 0.01~0.79)差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);多因素分析显示,NIHSS减分值(OR=39.87,95%CI 21.98~57.77)、再发脑梗死(OR=0.10,95%CI 0.01~0.86)差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:合并非瓣膜性房颤的急性脑梗死无症状性出血转化患者行低剂量低分子肝素抗凝治疗能改善神经功能,降低再发脑梗死风险,且不增加颅内外出血事件。     

Spinal epidural hematoma causing cord compression after tissue plasminogen activator and heparin therapy

Bleeding is the most serious complication of thrombolytic therapy and limits its usefulness. We have reported a case of epidural hematoma, a rare occurrence after combined therapy with tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) and heparin. We emphasize that in patients treated with thrombolytic agents, any trauma may increase the risk of bleeding. The sudden onset of back pain and neurologic deficits should alert the clinician to the possibility of spinal hematoma with cord compression.