Radon: is it a problem?

Radon gas is a major source of radiation exposure to the general public. Radon-222 is a product of uranium-238, present in varying concentrations in all soils. Radon enters buildings from soil, water, natural gas, and building materials. Its short-lived breakdown products, termed "radon daughters," include alpha-emitting solids that can deposit in the lungs. Firm evidence links lung cancer risk in miners with high exposure to radon daughters. The amount of risk associated with the much lower but chronic doses received in buildings is difficult to establish. By some extrapolations, radon daughters may be responsible for a significant number of lung cancer deaths. The existence or extent of synergism with smoking is unresolved. Local conditions can cause high levels of radon in some buildings, and measures that reduce indoor radon are of potential value.     

基于EPA/BEIR-VI模型的我国居室内氡致肺癌风险估计

目的:估计我国居室内氡导致的居民肺癌归因份额。方法:利用较为权威且适用的EPA/BEIR-VI风险模型,基于我国2015年肺癌死亡率、全死因死亡率以及有代表性的吸烟率和居室内氡平均浓度,预测我国居室内氡浓度水平致肺癌死亡风险。结果:非吸烟男性人群居室内氡致肺癌死亡超额相对危险(ERR)高于吸烟人群,且达到年龄为50岁时...     

Is there a specific mutation of p53 gene due to radon exposure? A systematic review

Purpose: To review the existing literature analysing the influence of radon exposure on mutations in tumour protein 53 gene (TP53) in lung cancer patients.

Material and methods: Medline and EMBASE databases along with the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) monographies were revised. Studies that had radon concentration as exposure variable and TP53 mutations as a result variable were included.

Results: Eight studies were obtained, with a total of 578 individuals. They had been carried out on miners and on general population. A 26% of the miners' tumours had a mutation in gene TP53, versus a 24% in the population exposed to residential radon. A predominance of the AGG^ARG→ ATG^MET (Arginine to Methionine) mutation in miners was observed.

Conclusions: The available results are not consistent in order to support the existence of a radon hotspot in TP53 gene. Future research should focus at least on exons 5 to 8, where most of the mutation clusters in lung tumours are observed.     

Public exposure to radon in drinking water in SERBIA

Radon is the main source of natural radiation that is received by population. The results of radon activity measurements in water from public drinking fountain, from bottled drinking water and from tap water in the city of Novi Sad, Serbia, are presented in this paper. The measurements were performed by RAD 7 radon detector manufactured by DURRIDGE COMPANY Inc. The corrected value of radon concentration in one sample exceeded the European Commission recommendation reference level for radon in drinking water of 100 Bq l⁻¹. In order to make the correlation between radon and radium concentrations in the tap water and in the water from public drinking fountain, the gamma-spectrometric measurements were performed. The results of ²²²Rn activity concentration measurements from soil in the city of Novi Sad using RAD 7 detector are presented.     

氡致肺癌危险度评价模型及其应用初探

氡是紧随吸烟之后的第二大致肺癌环境因素。近年来,随着氡与肺癌流行病学调查研究的不断深入及其方法学的进一步完善,相关危险度模型的研究也取得了一些新的进展。本文对迄今为止多个国际学术组织或团队给出的氡致肺癌超额相对危险度模型进行综述,简要介绍所建立模型的背景及其考虑的主要因素;结合我国不同年代的室内氡浓度水平进行了氡致肺癌...     

Risk coefficient of radon-induced lung cancer and combined effect of arsenic in miners of Yunnan tin mine of China

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某市两座地下水处理厂氡浓度初步调查与分析

目的 通过对水和空气中氡浓度的测量,初步调查水氡释放对水厂空气氡的影响.方法 选取某市的两座地下水处理厂,采集水厂的水源水、出厂水和末梢水.利用连续测氡仪快速水氡测量方法,测量水中氡浓度;采用固体径迹探测器,累积测量水厂不同区域空气氡浓度.结果 两座水处理厂水源水、出厂水和末梢水中氡浓度分别为:(7.59±1.36)、(3.56±0.86)和(3.68±0.81)Bq/L与(12.19±0.57)、(7.87±1.12)和(9.50±1.12)Bq/L.水源水最高,出厂水与末梢水相近.跌水曝气和开放式过滤工艺能明显降低水中氡含量.曝气室和过滤车间氡浓度分别高达4 218和1 937 Bq/m³,明显高于我国工作场所氡浓度限值1 000 Bq/m³.结论 地下水处理厂曝气车间和开放式过滤车间氡浓度受到水氡释放的影响,我国地下水处理厂氡的问题应该引起重视.     

室内氡与肺癌关系研究

目的 直接调查居室水平氡浓度对居民肺癌危险度的影响，并与由矿工受照结果推导的结论相比较。方法 在甘肃省平凉、庆阳两地区进行病例－对照研究。该地区居民稳定而室内氡水平较高。肺癌病例必须是在1994年1月至1998年4月期间诊断，年龄在30－75岁之间，居住在平凉和庆阳两地区的居民。根据人口调查资料随机选取对照，对照要在年龄、性别、地区方面与病例相匹配。在过去5－30年期间，凡住过两年以上的房间都布放了氡探测器。氡测量涵盖了77％的照射周期。结果 病例居室的平均氡浓度为230．4Bq/m^3(n=768)，对照为222．2Bq/m^3(n=1659)。居民肺癌危险度随室内氡水平的增高有所上升（P＜0．001）。根据线性模型，对全部研究个体而言，在100Bq/m^3情况下，附加比值比（EOR）为0.19(95% CI:0.05,0.47)。对测量涵盖了100％照射周期的个体，为0．31（95％CI：0．10，0．81）。在对照射的不确定度进行调整后，估算值可增加70％。结论 研究结果证明室内水平氡照射会增加肺癌危险度，增加值等于或超过从矿工数据外推的结果。     

我国31个城市饮用水氡浓度初步调查

目的:初步调查我国城市饮用水氡水平、分布特征及其影响因素。方法:按照行政区域采样,选择我国31个省会城市和直辖市,采集市政供水管网末梢水样品406份,基于RAD7 H 2O测量装置,采取闭合回路液—气平衡法,利用抓取模式,通过半导体探测器探测气体回路中氡浓度,经过4个循环周期,推算饮用水氡浓度。 ...     

Radon,smoking and HPV as lung cancer risk factors in ecological studies

Objectives: Cohen’s ecological analyses revealed negative correlation between the lung cancer mortality and average indoor radon concentration in the US counties, that contradicts to linear non-threshold (LNT) model and is inconsistent with results of case-control studies. The aim of this study was to analyze dependence between radon exposure and lung cancer mortality rate taking into account more complete data on smoking and new findings on association of the lung cancer with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.

Materials and methods: Information on the cancer rates in the US counties and Russian oblasts, smoking prevalence and indoor radon concentration was found in literature. The cervix cancer incidence rate was used as surrogate of the HPV infection prevalence. The analysis included calculation of the coefficients of linear dependence between radon exposure and lung cancer mortality rate with adjustment to smoking and HPV infection prevalence.

Results: After adjustment for the most relevant data on smoking and HPV infection, correlation between the lung cancer mortality and indoor radon was found to be consistent with results of the case control studies.

Conclusions: Analysis of geographically aggregated data on the lung cancer mortality and radon concentration in dwellings with adjustment to the significant risk factors confirms both the linear non-threshold dependency and results obtained in studies with individual accounting for the smoking and radon.     

大剂量维生素C联合环氧合酶2抑制剂治疗重症放射性直肠炎三例

放射性直肠炎是盆腔肿瘤放疗最常见的并发症, 而传统药物治疗重症放射性直肠炎疗效有限, 需探索新的治疗策略应用于临床。本研究报道3例重症放射性直肠炎患者, 经大剂量维生素C联合环氧合酶-2(cyclooxygenase-2, COX-2)抑制剂治疗后, 其腹泻、便血、里急后重、疼痛等症状明显改善, 影像学复查直肠壁水肿较前明显好转, 提示大剂量维生素C联合治疗重症放射性直肠炎具有较高的安全性和有效性。     

Carcinogenicity of radon/radon decay product inhalation in rats – effect of dose,dose rate and unattached fraction

Purpose: The effects of inhalation of radon/radon decay products at different total doses, dose rates and ‘unattached’ fractions were investigated in a life span study in rats.

Materials and methods: 1574 rats inhaled radon/radon decay products in a purpose-built recirculating exposure system that provided stable/reproducible exposure conditions. 501 were maintained as controls.

Results: Lung tumour incidences were significantly elevated in most exposed groups. The study power was insufficient to resolve the shape of the dose and dose rate response curves, but combination of this data with that from other studies demonstrated that for high cumulative exposures, the lifetime excess absolute risk increases with increasing exposure durations and for low cumulative exposures the opposite trend occurs. Exposure did not increase leukaemia incidences. A small number of non-lung tumour types including mammary fibroadenoma showed elevated incidences in some exposed groups, however not consistently across all exposure groups and showed no dose or dose rate relationship.

Conclusions: Radon/radon decay product exposure caused excess lung tumours in rats along with limited non-lung effects. The results are consistent with the findings that at low cumulative exposures decreasing exposure concentrations or protracting the time over which the dose is delivered, reduces lung tumour risk. At higher levels, decreasing exposure concentrations or protracting exposure time increases lung tumour risk.     

湖南A铀矿氡和氡子体及矿工肺癌

本文分析了湖南A铀矿井下氡子体对矿工的危害。早年井下氡和氡子体浓度超过限值20多倍.自建矿至1985年底, 主要工种的氡子体累积暴露量平均200WLM。观察2149名1971年前下井老工人, 1970～1985(15年)肺癌死亡11例, 肺癌粗死亡率35.14×10^-5, 特异死亡率24.07×10^-5, SMR=3.17。肺癌平均井下工龄18.5年。肺癌绝对危险系数5.58×lO^-6人年·wLM^-3, 特异相对危险系数5.03×l0^-2WLM^-1。剂量效应分析表明, 肺癌危硷随氡子体累积暴露量增加而增高。     

Doses and lung cancer risks from exposure to radon and plutonium

Abstract

Purpose: Epidemiological studies of the French uranium miners and the plutonium workers at the Mayak nuclear facility have provided excess relative risk (ERR) estimates per unit absorbed lung dose from alpha radiation. The aim of this paper was to review these two studies and to derive values of the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of alpha particles for the induction of lung cancer.

Materials and methods: We examined and compared the dosimetry assumptions and methodology used in the epidemiological studies of uranium miners and the plutonium workers. Values of RBE were obtained by comparing risk coefficients including comparison of lifetime risks for a given population. To do this, preliminary calculations of lifetime risks following inhalation of plutonium were carried out.

Results and conclusions: Published values of risk per unit dose following inhalation of radon progeny and plutonium were in agreement despite the very different dose distributions within the lungs and the different ways the doses were calculated. Values of RBE around 10–20 were obtained by comparing ERR values, but with wide uncertainty ranges. Comparing lifetime risks gave similar values (10, 19 and 21). This supports the use of a radiation weighting factor of 20 for alpha particles for radiation protection purposes.     

Transformation of lung cells from inhalation of radon daughters in dwellings: a preliminary study

There is now world-wide concern for the quantification of lung cancer risk due to indoor radon, but the recent estimates are based on epidemiological studies of miners alone. The present attempt is a preliminary study of the alteration of lung stem cells irradiated by alpha particles emitted by radon daughters. Local energy deposited has been calculated for alpha particles, emitted from radon daughters lining the mucous layer in the respiratory tracts. This calculation has then been followed by dose evaluation and estimation of transformation of lung cells as a function of age. Mean life span of the stem cells was varied between 5 and 45 years to simulate living conditions in different environments. The cumulative fraction of transformed cells after 40 and 70 years has been calculated for radon concentration in the range 23-230 Bq/m3. Increase of the fraction of transformed cells with radon concentration was exponential. It has been assumed that causes other than radiation increase the rate of cell death of mature and stem lung cells, and hence the turnover of stem cells to replace them. It is concluded that the rate of transformation of cells is small for low radon concentration even late in age for non-polluted environments. For radon concentrations of 50 and 100 Bq/m3 the fractions of transformed cells are 0.2 and 6 per cent, respectively for an exposure time of 70 years.     

深圳新建住宅室内氡水平及分布特征

目的 初步调查深圳市新建住宅室内氡水平及分布特征。方法 选择深圳市低层、多层、中高层和高层结构住宅108户,采用固体径迹法累积测量室内氡浓度。结果 深圳市居室内氡浓度算数均值为64 Bq/m³,几何均值为58 Bq/m³,范围15~155 Bq/m³;宝安区室内氡浓度均值最低,为50 Bq/m³,坪山新区室内氡浓度均值最高,为87 Bq/m³。深圳室内氡浓度 > 100 Bq/m³的测量点有12个,占总数的11.1%。Shapiro-Wilk检验表明,深圳室内氡浓度频数分布呈对数正态分布（P > 0.05）。建筑年代为1990—2015年的房屋,室内氡浓度随建筑年代呈降低趋势。除10层及以上,室内氡浓度随楼层的升高呈降低趋势。结论 本次调查比以往调查深圳市室内氡浓度相比升高了35%。建议继续加强完善建材放射性标准,加强高层住宅的自然通风,降低室内氡的辐射危害。     

Correlation between cytogenetic biomarkers obtained from DC and CBMN assays caused by low dose radon exposure in smokers

Abstract

Purpose: Radon is of health concern because they can cause lung cancer when inhaled over many years. Cytogenetic biomarkers proved to be excellent methods to detect and estimate radiation induced DNA damage. Two well established cytogenetic assays are available to detect the DNA damage caused by ionizing radiation namely Dicentric (DC) assay and Cytokinesis-Blocked Micro Nucleus (CBMN) assay. Chromosomal aberrations such as dicentric and acentric fragments can be analyzed in DC assay. Micronuclei and Nucleoplasmic bridges can be analyzed in CBMN assay. The present study focuses on correlation between the aberrations observed in DC and CBMN assay caused by low doses of radon in smokers.

Material and methods: Blood samples were collected, after prior consent, from smokers as well as healthy non-smoking individuals and exposed in vitro to radon ranging between 0–5.2 mGy using a simple, portable irradiation assembly designed and tested at authors’ laboratory.

Results: A significant increase in frequencies of dicentrics and excess acentric fragments were observed with increasing dose. Interestingly in CBMN assay also, the frequencies of micronuclei and nucleoplasmic bridges were increased with dose. There was a significant correlation between nucleoplasmic bridges and dicentrics for both smokers and non-smokers. Significant correlation between acentric fragments and micronucleus was observed only for non-smokers.

Conclusions: By considering the correlation between the two cytogenetic assays, the CBMN assay can be used as an alternative to DC assay for non-smokers. In case of smokers, nucleoplasmic bridges can be used to measure the radiation exposure. This study is first of its kind to correlate the cytogenetic biomarkers obtained from DC and CBMN assay for smokers with very low doses of radon.     

Residential radon and lung cancer characteristics in never smokers

Abstract

Purpose: The aim of this study is to assess if there is a relationship between residential radon and lung cancer histological types and patients’ age at diagnosis.

Materials and methods: We conducted a multicenter hospital-based case-control study with eight participating hospitals. We included 216 never-smoking cases with primary lung cancer and 329 never-smoking controls. Controls were frequency matched with cases on age and sex distribution. Of them, 198 cases (91.7%) and 275 controls (83.5%) had residential radon measurements.

Results: Lung cancer risk reached statistical significance only for adenocarcinoma (Odds ratio [OR] 2.19; 95% Confidence interval [CI] 1.44–3.33), for other histologies the results were marginally significant. Residential radon level was higher for patients diagnosed before 50 and 60 years old than for older lung cancer cases.

Conclusions: Residential radon in never smokers seems to be a risk factor for all lung cancer histologies. Individuals diagnosed at a younger age have a higher residential radon concentration, suggesting an accumulative effect on lung cancer appearance.     

我国非铀矿山222Rn、220Rn浓度季节变化研究

目的 研究非铀矿山中²²²Rn、²²⁰Rn浓度的季节变化规律。方法 选取云南、山东、新疆、黑龙江、湖南和贵州6个省份的铜、金、铝、锰、锑、钨、铜镍和煤矿共8类9个矿山,采用LD-P型²²²Rn-²²⁰Rn分辨探测器对井下不同季节²²²Rn和²²⁰Rn浓度进行了测量。结果 井下²²²Rn浓度存在明显的季节变化,夏季²²²Rn浓度为35.5~4841 Bq/m³,其中4个矿²²²Rn浓度均值超过1000 Bq/m³。冬季²²²Rn浓度均值为5~1917Bq/m³,只有1个矿超过1000Bq/m³。夏季与冬季的比值在2~12之间。各矿间²²²Rn浓度差异很大,通风是影响其变化的重要因素。²²⁰Rn浓度的季节变化略呈夏高冬低的趋势,由于受到布放位置的影响,其规律性有待进一步确认。结论 井下²²²Rn、²²⁰Rn浓度随季节而变化,在估算矿工受照剂量时应考虑季节变化的影响;在矿山氡测量中应避免采用瞬时测量方法;采用累积测量方法时,也应考虑季节变化的影响,合理的暴露时间应为半年,同时要注意季节的选择;对于季度性(3个月)的测量结果应该进行季节修正。     

Radon: current challenges in cellular radiobiology.

Radon is by far the most important contributor to the collective dose equivalent. Most of what is known about the hazards of radon daughters comes from epidemiological studies of miners. There are a few well defined areas in which in vitro research can complement such studies: First, more data on the relative effects of differing energy (LET) alpha-particles would help: (1) understand the significance of the depth of sensitive cells in the bronchial epithelium--which varies between individuals, as well as between smokers and non-smokers, and between miners and non-miners; (2) understand the relative hazards of radon and thoron daughters. Second, reliable methods for predicting high LET responses from low LET response, would enable Japanese A-bomb survivor data to be applied with confidence. Third, understanding the effects of single-particle traversals of cells relative to multiple traversals could allow reliable extrapolation of epidemiological miner data to low exposures. Fourth, a better understanding of the nature of the interaction between tobacco and radiation damage would help predict the effect of radon on non-smokers.