Radiation protection in pediatric imaging

The effects of medical radiation exposure in childhood can last a lifetime. As more American children are exposed to repeated diagnostic imaging examinations, concerns have been raised about the potential harm from early medical irradiation. Diagnostic imaging personnel have a responsibility to ensure strict and consistent observance of the "as low as reasonably achievable" (ALARA) principle. Radiation risks are greater for children, which makes strict compliance with radiation protection practices a public health imperative. Radiologic technologists play a central role in radiation protection for children. This Directed Reading reviews the biologic effects and risks of ionizing radiation among children and the use of radiation protection to minimize medical radiation doses in the pediatric population.     

南京“5.7”放射事故患者受照后2年的医学观察

目的 通过对2014年南京"5.7"¹⁹²Ir源放射事故患者受照后2年的医学观察,探讨放射损伤的远后效应及肢体局部放射损伤的康复治疗效果,为核与辐射事故医学应急提供临床资料。方法 仔细询问受照患者的病史,进行详细的体格检查,观察和记录临床症状和体征,系统评价其血液系统、免疫系统、生殖系统、眼、神经-精神系统等改变,观察并评价患者右下肢功能障碍的康复治疗疗效。结果 造血、免疫系统基本恢复,但骨髓穿刺仍提示右侧髂骨骨髓增生低下。性激素水平在正常范围内,但精液检查显示精子活率为0。眼晶状体、视网膜及眼底均出现放射性损伤。心理测评显示,患者心理状态较稳定。右下肢皮肤伤口愈合良好,但仍有功能障碍及疼痛感,通过康复治疗后功能障碍较前好转,药物结合物理疗法镇痛效果良好。结论 临床治疗尽早干预可使轻度骨髓型急性放射病患者的生理功能完全或部分恢复。     

Mechanisms of radiation-induced skin injury and implications for future clinical trials

Abstract

Purpose: To summarize current knowledge regarding mechanisms of radiation-induced skin injury and medical countermeasures available to reduce its severity. Advances in radiation delivery using megavoltage and intensity modulated radiation therapy have permitted delivery of higher doses of radiation to well-defined tumor target tissues. Although skin is not a radiation dose-limiting tissue, injury to skin poses substantial morbidity risks in the curative treatment of cancers, especially when radiation is administered in combination with chemotherapy. In the continuum of radiation-induced skin injury, late effects are most severe being characterized by sub-cutaneous fibrosis and morbidity. The principal pathogenesis is initiated by depletion of acutely responding epithelial tissues and damage to vascular endothelial microvessels. Emerging concepts of radiation- induced skin injury suggest that the recovery of stromal stem cells and tissue repair remain chronically impaired by long-lived free radicals, reactive oxygen species, and pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines resulting in progressive damage after radiation exposure.

Conclusions: As pathways underlying the cellular and molecular mechanisms of radiation-induced skin injury are becoming better understood, novel approaches are being developed for mitigating or treating the associated pathogenesis.     

Basic review of radiation biology and terminology

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this paper is to review basic radiation biology and associated terminology to impart a better understanding of the importance of basic concepts of ionizing radiation interactions with living tissue. As health care workers in a field that utilizes ionizing radiation, nuclear medicine technologists are concerned about the possible acute and chronic effects of occupational radiation exposure. Technologists should have a clear understanding of what they are exposed to and how their safety could be affected. Furthermore, technologists should be knowledgeable about radiation effects so that they can adequately assuage possible patient fears about undergoing a nuclear medicine procedure. After reading this article, the nuclear medicine technologist will be familiar with: (a) basic radiation biology concepts; (b) types of interactions of radiation with living tissue, and possible effects from that exposure; (c) theoretical dose-response curves and how they are used in radiation biology; (d) stochastic versus nonstochastic effects of radiation exposure, and what these terms mean in relation to both high- and low-dose radiation exposure; and (e) possible acute and chronic radiation exposure effects.     

Radiologie und Schwangerschaft

In a radiology department there are frequently asked questions associated with pregnant and breast feeding women. These are related to either pregnant patients or staff members or the questions are centered on the fetus as a patient. For pregnant patients the potential exposure to the mother and the fetus related to the imaging modality selected as well as the effects of the necessary contrast media must be taken into account. Even for methods without ionizing radiation possible limitations in the use for pregnant women must be discussed. Finally, this medical check defines the imaging modality and the necessary protocol and contrast media. The present article describes the legal requirements in Germany, the technical exposure and pharmacological risks for the pregnant woman and the fetus regarding imaging modalities with and without ionizing radiation. The forthcoming second article will address the risk analysis for examinations with ionizing radiation and will present recommendations for typical clinical imaging problems.     

Radiology and pregnancy. Principles, general requirements and exposure

In a radiology department there are frequently asked questions associated with pregnant and breast feeding women. These are related to either pregnant patients or staff members or the questions are centered on the fetus as a patient. For pregnant patients the potential exposure to the mother and the fetus related to the imaging modality selected as well as the effects of the necessary contrast media must be taken into account. Even for methods without ionizing radiation possible limitations in the use for pregnant women must be discussed. Finally, this medical check defines the imaging modality and the necessary protocol and contrast media. The present article describes the legal requirements in Germany, the technical exposure and pharmacological risks for the pregnant woman and the fetus regarding imaging modalities with and without ionizing radiation. The forthcoming second article will address the risk analysis for examinations with ionizing radiation and will present recommendations for typical clinical imaging problems.     

Dotting the eyes: mouse strain dependency of the lens epithelium to low dose radiation-induced DNA damage

Purpose: Epidemiological evidence regarding the radiosensitivity of the lens of the eye and radiation cataract development has led to changes in the EU Basic Safety Standards for protection of the lens against ionizing radiation. However, mechanistic details of lens radiation response pathways and their significance for cataractogenesis remain unclear. Radiation-induced DNA damage and the potential impairment of repair pathways within the lens epithelium, a cell monolayer that covers the anterior hemisphere of the lens, are likely to be involved.

Materials and Methods: In this work, the lens epithelium has been analyzed for its DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair response to ionizing radiation. The responses of epithelial cells located at the anterior pole (central region) have been compared to at the very periphery of the monolayer (germinative and transitional zones). Described here are the different responses in the two regions and across four strains (C57BL/6, 129S2, BALB/c and CBA/Ca) over a low dose (0–25 mGy) in-vivo whole body X-irradiation range up to 24?hours post exposure.

Results: DNA damage and repair as visualized through 53BP1 staining was present across the lens epithelium, although repair kinetics appeared non-uniform. Epithelial cells in the central region have significantly more 53BP1 foci. The sensitivities of different mouse strains have also been compared.

Conclusions: 129S2 and BALB/c showed higher levels of DNA damage, with BALB/c showing significantly less inter-individual variability and appearing to be a more robust model for future DNA damage and repair studies. As a result of this study, BALB/c was identified as a suitable radiosensitive lens strain to detect and quantify early low dose ionizing radiation DNA damage effects in the mouse eye lens specifically, as an indicator of cataract formation.     

Establishing diagnostic reference levels for interventional procedures in Kenya

PurposeTo quantify ionizing radiation exposure to patients during interventional procedures and establish national diagnostic reference levels (NDRLs) for clinical radiation exposure management.MethodsThe cumulative reference point air kerma, kerma area product, fluoroscopy time and other operational parameters were monitored for 50 children and 261 adult patient procedures in five catheterization medical laboratories in Kenya. To estimate the risk associated with the exposure, effective doses were derived from the kerma area product using conversion factors from Monte Carlo models.ResultsAbout 3% of the measured cumulative reference point air kerma for the interventional procedures approached the threshold dose limit with the potential to cause deterministic effects such as skin injuries. In interventional cardiology, the results obtained for both children and adults indicated 33% were below the diagnostic reference levels (DRLs). In adult interventional radiology, 29% for cumulative reference point air kerma, and 43% for kerma area product and fluoroscopy time respectively were below the diagnostic reference levels. NDRLs were proposed for routine use in the procedures considered and for the non-existent DRLs situations in paediatric interventional cardiology.ConclusionThe measured patient doses were above the DRLs available in the literature indicating a need for radiation optimization through, continuous monitoring and recording of patient dose. To promote radiation safety, facilities performing interventional procedures need to establish a radiation monitoring notification threshold for possible deterministic effects, in addition to the use of the newly established national diagnostic reference levels, as a quality assurance measure.     

The Skin: Its Structure and Response to Ionizing Radiation

Summary

The response of the skin to ionizing radiation has important implications both for the treatment of malignant disease by radiation and for radiological protection. The structural organization of human skin is described and compared with that of the pig, with which it shows many similarities, in order that the response of the skin to ionizing radiation may be more fully understood. Acute radiation damage to the skin is primarily a consequence of changes in the epidermis; the timing of the peak of the reaction is related to the kinetic organization of this layer. The rate of development of damage is independent of the radiation dose, since this is related to the natural rate of loss of cells from the basal layer of the epidermis. Recovery of the epidermis occurs as a result of the proliferation of surviving clonogenic basal cells from within the irradiated area. The presence of clonogenic cells in the canal of the hair follicle is important, particularly after non-uniform irradiation from intermediate energy β-emitters. The migration of viable cells from the edges of the irradiated site is also significant when small areas of skin are irradiated. Late damage to the skin is primarily a function of radiation effects on the vasculature; this produces a wave of dermal atrophy after 16–26 weeks. Dermal necrosis develops at this time after high doses. A second phase of dermal thinning is seen to develop after > 52 weeks, and this later phase of damage is associated with the appearance of telangiectasia. Highly localized irradiation of the skin, either to a specific layer (as may result from exposure to very low energy β-emitters) or after exposure to small highly radioactive particles, ‘hot particles’, produces gross effects that become visibly manifest within 2 weeks of exposure. These changes result from the direct killing of the cells of the skin in interphase after doses > 100 Gy. Dose-effect curves have been established for the majority of these deterministic endpoints in the skin from the results of both experimental and clinical studies. These are of value in the establishment of safe radiation dose limits for the skin.     

放射性皮肤损伤的治疗进展

人体暴露于电离辐射后会引发各个组织器官的损伤,其中,皮肤是人体最先暴露于射线的器官,其损伤的机制和治疗是研究的热点。放射性皮肤损伤（RISI）最常见于放疗后,还可见于核工业生产、放射性实验室和工业探伤等意外核事故。RISI形成后影响患者的健康状况和生活质量,严重者会威胁患者的生命健康。然而,到目前为止,对于RISI尚无...     

Genomic instability induced in distant progeny of bystander cells depends on the connexins expressed in the irradiated cells

Abstract

Purpose: To examine the time window during which intercellular signaling though gap junctions mediates non-targeted (bystander) effects induced by moderate doses of ionizing radiation; and to investigate the impact of gap junction communication on genomic instability in distant progeny of bystander cells.

Materials and methods: A layered cell culture system was developed to investigate the propagation of harmful effects from irradiated normal or tumor cells that express specific connexins to contiguous bystander normal human fibroblasts. Irradiated cells were exposed to moderate mean absorbed doses from 3.7?MeV α particle, 1000?MeV/u iron ions, 600?MeV/u silicon ions, or ¹³⁷Cs γ rays. Following 5?h of co-culture, pure populations of bystander cells, unexposed to secondary radiation, were isolated and DNA damage and oxidative stress was assessed in them and in their distant progeny (20–25 population doublings).

Results: Increased frequency of micronucleus formation and enhanced oxidative changes were observed in bystander cells co-cultured with confluent cells exposed to either sparsely ionizing (¹³⁷Cs γ rays) or densely ionizing (α particles, energetic iron or silicon ions) radiations. The irradiated cells propagated signals leading to biological changes in bystander cells within 1?h of irradiation, and the effect required cellular coupling by gap junctions. Notably, the distant progeny of isolated bystander cells also exhibited increased levels of spontaneous micronuclei. This effect was dependent on the type of junctional channels that coupled the irradiated donor cells with the bystander cells. Previous work showed that gap junctions composed of connexin26 (Cx26) or connexin43 (Cx43) mediate toxic bystander effects within 5?h of co-culture, whereas gap junctions composed of connexin32 (Cx32) mediate protective effects. In contrast, the long-term progeny of bystander cells expressing Cx26 or Cx43 did not display elevated DNA damage, whereas those coupled by Cx32 had enhanced DNA damage.

Conclusions: In response to moderate doses from either sparsely or densely ionizing radiations, toxic and protective effects are rapidly communicated to bystander cells through gap junctions. We infer that bystander cells damaged by the initial co-culture (expressing Cx26 or Cx43) die or undergo proliferative arrest, but that the bystander cells that were initially protected (expressing Cx32) express DNA damage upon sequential passaging. Together, the results inform the roles that intercellular communication play under stress conditions, and aid assessment of the health risks of exposure to ionizing radiation. Identification of the communicated molecules may enhance the efficacy of radiotherapy and help attenuate its debilitating side-effects.     

A Multimedia Strategy to Integrate Introductory Broad-Based Radiation Science Education in US Medical Schools

US physicians in multiple specialties who order or conduct radiological procedures lack formal radiation science education and thus sometimes order procedures of limited benefit or fail to order what is necessary. To this end, a multidisciplinary expert group proposed an introductory broad-based radiation science educational program for US medical schools. Suggested preclinical elements of the curriculum include foundational education on ionizing and nonionizing radiation (eg, definitions, dose metrics, and risk measures) and short- and long-term radiation-related health effects as well as introduction to radiology, radiation therapy, and radiation protection concepts. Recommended clinical elements of the curriculum would impart knowledge and practical experience in radiology, fluoroscopically guided procedures, nuclear medicine, radiation oncology, and identification of patient subgroups requiring special considerations when selecting specific ionizing or nonionizing diagnostic or therapeutic radiation procedures. Critical components of the clinical program would also include educational material and direct experience with patient-centered communication on benefits of, risks of, and shared decision making about ionizing and nonionizing radiation procedures and on health effects and safety requirements for environmental and occupational exposure to ionizing and nonionizing radiation. Overarching is the introduction to evidence-based guidelines for procedures that maximize clinical benefit while limiting unnecessary risk. The content would be further developed, directed, and integrated within the curriculum by local faculties and would address multiple standard elements of the Liaison Committee on Medical Education and Core Entrustable Professional Activities for Entering Residency of the Association of American Medical Colleges.     

Multidisciplinary European low dose initiative: an update of the MELODI program

Abstract

Purpose: This paper provides an update and summary on the organization of European research in the field of low dose risk and radiation protection. To address declining resources and competence in radiation protection and related research across European countries, a High Level and Expert Group (HLEG) was established in 2007. The HLEG identified key policy and scientific questions to be addressed through a strategic research agenda for low dose radiation risk. This initiated the establishment of a European Research Platform, called MELODI (Multidisciplinary European Low Dose Research Initiative). Dr Bill Morgan closely followed the European low dose programme and chaired the international Advisory Boards of DoReMi Network of Excellence and the MELODI platform.

Conclusion: The MELODI research platform is dedicated to low dose ionizing radiation risk. In 2010, MELODI was founded as a registered association with 15 members. As of September 2016, the association´s membership increased to 46. A major activity of MELODI is the establishment and updating of a long-term Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) for research on low dose risk in Europe. The SRA is intended to guide the priorities for national and European research programmes and the preparation of competitive calls at the European level. A key priority for radiation protection research is to improve health risk estimates for exposures corresponding to the dose limits for occupational exposures and to reference levels for the exposure of the population in emergency situations.     

以秀丽隐杆线虫为模型的电离辐射损伤研究进展

秀丽隐杆线虫（简称线虫）作为一种经典模式生物,已被广泛应用于辐射损伤研究领域。电离辐射在线虫体内造成的损伤与脊椎动物相似,主要体现在DNA损伤、活性氧水平上升、衰老加速和生殖系统受损等。以线虫作为电离辐射动物模型的研究已经在辐射损伤领域中取得很多突破。电离辐射引起的线虫衰老受多种因素影响,包括错误的蛋白表达、脂质代谢的改变等。电离辐射可诱导线虫生殖细胞凋亡、细胞周期阻滞和DNA损伤。以线虫作为电离辐射动物模型的研究对高等生物的辐射效应研究有重要意义。笔者简要综述了以线虫为模型的辐射损伤研究进展。     

Occupational exposure to ionizing radiation and the occurrence of cataract

Radiation cataract is one of ensuing effects of ionizing radiation, since its threshold dose under which it does not occur, and above which it shows dose dependency, has been observed. Clinical course of radiation cataract is identical for all the types of ionizing radiation and is very typical. Minimal dose for progressive cataract formation is determined by the type of radiation, i.e., its relative biological efficacy, dose, and the duration of the exposure period. Theoretically, threshold dose existence does not exclude the incidence of cataract formation under significantly smaller doses, as well. The aim of this study was to analyze the incidence of cataract formation among the medical staff professionally exposed to ionizing radiation. Neither of the diagnosed cataracts had typical morphology, nor was the correlation established between the dose, exposure time, and the cataract formation. All the diagnosed cataracts were described as premature, and therefore ionizing radiation was considered as a co-factor in premature cataract formation in the examined groups.     

Oncology Patient Perceptions of the Use of Ionizing Radiation in Diagnostic Imaging

PurposeTo measure the knowledge of oncology patients regarding use and potential risks of ionizing radiation in diagnostic imaging.MethodsA 30-question survey was developed and e-mailed to 48,736 randomly selected patients who had undergone a diagnostic imaging study at a comprehensive cancer center between November 1, 2013 and January 31, 2014. The survey was designed to measure patients’ knowledge about use of ionizing radiation in diagnostic imaging and attitudes about radiation. Nonresponse bias was quantified by sending an abbreviated survey to patients who did not respond to the original survey.ResultsOf the 48,736 individuals who were sent the initial survey, 9,098 (18.7%) opened it, and 5,462 (11.2%) completed it. A total of 21.7% of respondents reported knowing the definition of ionizing radiation; 35.1% stated correctly that CT used ionizing radiation; and 29.4% stated incorrectly that MRI used ionizing radiation. Many respondents did not understand risks from exposure to diagnostic doses of ionizing radiation: Of 3,139 respondents who believed that an abdominopelvic CT scan carried risk, 1,283 (40.9%) believed sterility was a risk; 669 (21.3%) believed heritable mutations were a risk; 657 (20.9%) believed acute radiation sickness was a risk; and 135 (4.3%) believed cataracts were a risk.ConclusionsMost patients and caregivers do not possess basic knowledge regarding the use of ionizing radiation in oncologic diagnostic imaging. To ensure health literacy and high-quality patient decision making, efforts to educate patients and caregivers should be increased. Such education might begin with information about effects that are not risks of diagnostic imaging.     

放射诊疗工作人员血型糖蛋白A基因突变频率及其相关因素的研究

目的 探讨血型糖蛋白A(GPA)基因突变频率用于辐射危险评价及预测电离辐射诱发肿瘤风险的可行性.方法 采用固定人群分层随机抽样的方法,选取上海市放射诊疗工作人员336例(按工种分为X射线影像诊断组、CT影像诊断组、介人放射学组和放射治疗组),健康对照组 112例;其中,经血型鉴定为MN杂合个体的放射诊疗工作人员为176例,健康对照者为58例.分离、固定、荧光免疫标记外周血红细胞后,应用流式细胞仪,按照BR6-1WI方法,分析GPA基因突变频率;采用胞质分裂阻断微核+3-氨基苯甲酰胺指数实验(CB微核+3AB指数实验),检测DNA损伤修复能力以反映研究对象的个体易感性.结果 放射诊疗工作人员GPA基因突变频率明显高于健康对照组(t=2.29～11.48,P＜0.05),尤其是介入放射学组的GPA NO基因突变频率明显高于X射线影像诊断组(t =2.01,P＜0.05).GPA NO基因突变频率受放射工龄、累积剂量和3AB指数的影响作用明显,而GPA NN基因突变频率仅受放射工龄影响,与累积剂量和3AB指数的相关性不明显.结论 对于职业低剂量电离辐射受照人群,GPA NO基因突变频率可较好地反映电离辐射诱发的DNA损伤效应和个体的辐射易感性,较GPA NN基因突变频率更适宜和敏感.     

电离辐射的非靶效应和延迟效应

电离辐射的非靶效应和延迟效应是细胞对电离辐射反应的两种相互关联的表现.目前,对这两种效应的研究主要集中在辐射诱发的基因组不稳定性、旁效应、适应性反应三个方面.随着研究的深入,非靶效应和延迟效应在低剂量辐射效应领域越来越受到重视.为此对这两种效应的相互关系及其潜在的生物学意义作一简述.