Prevention of ureteral injuries in gynecologic surgery

Pelvic surgery is the most common cause of iatrogenic ureteral injury. The majority of patients with ureteral injuries have no identifiable predisposing risk factors. A simple maneuver that has been taught successfully at our institution that facilitates the identification of the ureter is described. When injury is discovered during surgery, correction of the injury can be repaired with minimal risk of long-term sequelae. Postoperatively, patients with ureteral injury typically present with costovertebral angle tenderness, ileus, fever, and flank pain with a minimal rise in serum creatinine. To prevent ureteral injuries, the surgeon must have a thorough knowledge of the location of the ureter during various pelvic procedures and the specific regions where it is most susceptible to injury.     

妇科腹腔镜手术泌尿系损伤的临床分析

目的：探讨妇科腹腔镜手术发生泌尿系损伤的相关因素、诊断、治疗方法及预防措施。方法：回顾分析2002年1月至2012年12月北京大学人民医院妇科腹腔镜手术发生泌尿系损伤患者的临床资料。总结分析患者的疾病类型、手术方式、损伤特点、诊疗情况及预后等。结果：妇科腹腔镜手术共4773例,泌尿系损伤发生18例（0.38％）,其中8例发生于腹腔镜恶性肿瘤手术,8例发生于腹腔镜辅助阴式全子宫切除术（LAVH）,2例发生于腹腔镜附件手术。18例泌尿系损伤患者中5例有腹部手术史,有腹部手术史者的泌尿系损伤发生率高于无手术史者（P〈0.05）。18例泌尿系损伤患者中膀胱损伤4例,其中3例位于膀胱后壁,1例位于膀胱三角区;输尿管损伤14例,其中输尿管上段损伤2例,中段损伤10例,下段损伤2例;左侧输尿管损伤2例,右侧12例。术中发现损伤10例,其中4例膀胱损伤和6例输尿管损伤;术后发现8例,均为输尿管损伤,于术后1～10天发现,均经静脉肾盂造影确诊。11例经再次手术修补成功,7例放置输尿管支架6个月（3～12个月）保守治疗成功。结论：腹腔镜下恶性肿瘤手术、LAVH、有腹部手术史患者发生泌尿系损伤机率较高,输尿管损伤多于膀胱损伤。术者需高度警惕,术后严密观察,如发现泌尿道损伤,尽早请泌尿科医师共同决定治疗方法。     

A new technique for ureteral stent placement during pregnancy using endoluminal ultrasound.

Endoluminal sonography using the IVUS is a minimally invasive procedure performed using a flexible 6.2F catheter with a 20 megahertz transducer that can easily be passed endoscopically to image the urethra, bladder, ureter and renal pelvis. In the current study, a woman patient in her third trimester of pregnancy with a renal pelvic stone and persistent colic was safely treated with placement of an indwelling ureteral stent. Because it is minimally invasive and does not require the use of roentgenograms, we believe the IVUS will be a useful tool to assist with the management of ureteral colic in patients who are pregnant in whom intervention is required.     

Laparoscopic partial cystectomy for bladder endometriosis

Laparoscopic partial cystectomy performed for bladder endometriosis in selected patients requires advanced laparoscopic skills including pelvic dissection, suturing and intracorporeal knot tying. Cystoscopic skills to assess the extent of endometriosis involvement in the bladder and to place ureteral stents if endometriosis involves or is close to the trigone, ureters, or projected course of the intramural part of the ureter are also required. Previous authors have recommended the laparoscopic technique only with bladder endometriosis that is distant from the bladder neck, the ureteral orifices, and the trigone, to allow a resection margin of 1–2 cm. We find no reason to exclude patients with these involvements if the surgeon can safely do the resection and reconstruction. We report a 32-year-old patient referred by her urologist for the evaluation and treatment of biopsy-proven bladder endometriosis penetrating the bladder wall and mucosa above and to the right of the midline of the trigone approximately 1.5 in. in diameter with fibrotic scarring extending to the trigone and very close to the right ureteral orifice. The patient successfully underwent partial laparoscopic cystectomy as described in the body of the paper.     

Nomogram for Predicting a Complex Ureteral Procedure in Pelvic Endometriosis Surgery

Study ObjectiveTo develop a nomogram for predicting the type of ureteral procedure in pelvic deep endometriosis (DE) surgery (1) and to describe the factors and complications associated with the ureteral procedure (2).DesignRetrospective monocentric study of 920 patients who underwent surgery for pelvic DE between June 2009 and March 2020 in the gynecologic surgery department of the Versailles Hospital Center. The main criterion was evaluation of the ureteral procedure, classified as simple (isolation of the ureter) or complex (dissection of the ureter, segmental ureteral resection, or nephroureterectomy). Postoperative complications, including ureteral stenosis and fistula formation, were tabulated.SettingTertiary referral hospital and expert center in endometriosis.PatientsA total of 920 patients with DE.InterventionsUreteral procedure during surgery for DE.Measurements and Main ResultsIn total, 724 patients (79%) underwent a ureteral procedure, of which 307 (33%) were complex, including 17 (1.8%) segmental ureteral resections. In multivariate analysis, the predictive variables for a complex ureteral procedure were age (p = .036), a previous surgery for endometriosis (p <.01), and ureteral dilatation on magnetic resonance imaging (p <.001). The area under the curve for the model predicting a complex ureteral procedure was 0.68 (95% confidence interval, 0.60–0.71). A complex ureteral procedure was associated with a 3.5% rate of ureteral fistula (n = 15).ConclusionAge, a previous surgery for endometriosis, a rectovaginal nodule size ≥30 mm, endometriotic involvement of the rectum or sigmoid, and ureteral dilatation are significantly associated with a complex ureteral procedure. Our results allowed us to build a nomogram that can be used to better inform patients, anticipate the therapeutic strategy, and optimize the modalities of postoperative surveillance.     

Laparoscopic management of ureteral endometriosis: our experience

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Ureteral endometriosis is rare, accounting for less than 0.3% of all endometriotic lesions. The aim of our study is to evaluate the prevalence of extrinsic ureteral endometriosis in women undergoing laparoscopic surgery for severe endometriosis and to suggest that laparoscopic ureterolysis represents a mandatory measure in all cases to avoid ureteral injury. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed of all cases of patients who underwent laparoscopic surgery for severe endometriosis at the departments of obstetrics and gynecology at CMCO-SIHCUS and Hautepierre Hospital, Strasbourg, from November 2004 through January 2006. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We recorded 54 patients with a mean age of 31 years and a mean body mass index of 21.9. Reported symptoms were dysmenorrhea (88%), severe dyspareunia (88%), severe pelvic pain (38.8%), and infertility (74%). Five women presented with dysuria, frequency, recurrent urinary tract infections, and pain in the renal angle, and 2 patients had hydronephrosis. We observed 3 patients (5.6%) with ureteral stenosis, 35 (64.8%) with adenomyotic tissue surrounding the ureter without stenosis, and 16 (29.6%) with adenomyotic tissue adjacent to the ureter. It was on the left side in 47.4% of cases, on the right side in 31.6% cases, and bilaterally in 21% of cases. In 9 patients, ureteral involvement was associated with bladder endometriosis (16.7%). In all patients, ureterolysis was performed. There was 1 case of ureteral injury during the procedure, 2 of transitory urinary retention, and 1 of uretero-vaginal fistula after surgery. During the first year of follow-up, the disease recurred in 4 patients, with no evidence of the disease in the urinary tract. CONCLUSION: Conservative laparoscopic surgery to relieve ureteral obstruction and remove pathologic tissue is the management of choice. Resection of part of the ureter should be performed only in exceptional cases. Ureterolysis should be performed in all patients before endometriotic nodule resection to recognize and prevent any ureteral damage.     

Iatrogenic injuries to the ureter during gynecologic and obstetric operations

Iatrogenic injuries to the ureter are hazardous complications of pelvic and vaginal operations, causing severe morbidity and even mortality. Eighteen such instances that occurred during the last 30 years are analyzed. Most of the injuries were associated with attempts to achieve hemostasis without proper identification of the ureter. The incidence of ureteral injuries declined during the years concomitantly with the improvement of surgical techniques. The proper identification and, when necessary, isolation of the ureter during operations in which there is a risk is crucial in reducing the incidence of ureteral injuries. Those diagnosed at the time of injury and treated with end to end anastomosis had the best results. Delayed diagnosis and treatment were associated with poor end results. The English literature is reviewed.     

Laterally Extended Endopelvic Resection of Recurrent Epithelioid Trophoblastic Tumor by Laparoscopy

We report the resection of a recurrent epithelioid trophoblastic tumor by laparoscopic laterally extended endopelvic resection (LEER). The LEER technique was developed to resect en bloc multiple visceral compartments involving the lateral pelvic wall with negative margins for local control of advanced and recurrent malignancies. Described by Höckel, this procedure is usually performed by a midline laparotomy. Our patient had undergone prior laparotomic surgery including hysterectomy, partial bladder resection, and a right ureteral reimplantation for an epithelioid trophoblastic tumor without adjuvant treatment. She presented a recurrent tumor infiltrating the bladder, the ureter, and the right pelvic wall as well as the internal and external iliac vessels. A vascular surgeon first performed a femorofemoral bypass by bilateral groin incisions with a subcutaneous tunnel. The surgery was then exclusively performed by laparoscopy using the LEER technique including resection of both external and internal iliac vessels and the pelvic wall through the lateral pelvic muscles and iterative bladder resection associated with a ureteral reimplantation using the psoas hitch bladder technique. The patient experienced Clavien-Dindo classification grade II postoperative complications. Histology showed a margin-free resection (R0).     

Low risk of ureteral obstruction with "deep" (dorsal/posterior) uterosacral ligament suture placement for transvaginal apical suspension

OBJECTIVE: Transvaginal uterosacral ligament fixation (USLF), often called "high" USLF, is associated with a 1.0% to 10.9% ureteral obstruction rate. Anatomic relations and pelvic rotation with positioning imply "high" (cephalad) suture placement may bring sutures closer to the ureter. We examined the ureteral obstruction rate with a "deep" (dorsal/posterior) uterosacral ligament suture placement modification of a standard USLF procedure. STUDY DESIGN: At the University of Massachusetts and Tufts, 411 consecutive patients underwent Mayo culdoplasty utilizing > or = 3 uterosacral sutures placed "deep" bilaterally. Intraoperative cystoscopy was performed. RESULTS: One patient (0.24% [.01%-1.35%]) had ureteral obstruction attributable to USLF. Two had obstruction secondary to concomitant procedures. Compared with previous published series, the odds of ureteral injury secondary to USLF was 4.6 times lower (95% CI 2.31-9.24; P < .0001). CONCLUSION: Placement of USLF sutures "deep" (dorsal/posterior) increases the margin of safety for the ureter and, in this study, decreased the ureteral injury rate nearly 5-fold.     

Ureteral avulsion during uterine dilatation and evacuation: a case report

BACKGROUND: Ureteral injury during elective pregnancy termination is rare and has been reported only 8 times. Two of these cases involved avulsion, and 1 occurred during a second-trimester procedure. CASE: Ureteral avulsion and damage to the lower colon occurred during second-trimester pregnancy termination. Although the ureter was initially thought to be intact on direct visualization of the pelvic ureter and stent placement, pathologic evaluation of the curettage specimen revealed a segment of ureter. Subsequently, intravenous pyelography confirmed ureteral avulsion at the junction of the ureter with the kidney. CONCLUSION: Although damage to the ureter at the time of uterine evacuation is unusual, use of intraoperative intravenous pyelography may be advisable when injury is suspected but not obvious.     

妇科腹腔镜手术中输尿管损伤的临床特点及处理

目的探讨妇科腹腔镜手术中输尿管损伤的主要原因及诊断、治疗和预防的方法。方法回顾性分析我院13年间,妇科腹腔镜手术中发生输尿管损伤患者的临床资料、疾病类型、盆腔情况、手术类型、损伤特点、诊治情况及预后。结果．5541例妇科腹腔镜手术中,共发生输尿管损伤8例,发生率为0．14％,其中腹腔镜辅助阴式子宫切除术(LAVH)发生输尿管损伤6例,腹腔镜下全子宫切除术(TLH)1例,盆腔侧壁粘连松解手术1例。主要妇科疾病为：子宫腺肌症、子宫内膜异位症、子宫肌瘤;8例均有盆腔粘连,4例有盆腹腔手术史,7例子宫手术者,子宫均有增大(6～10周)。输卵管损伤症状出现于术后0～13d,包括：引流量增多、腹痛或腹胀、腰疼、恶心呕吐、发热、尿量减少、阴道流水、腹部皮下水肿、腹膜炎等。诊断时间在术后0～17d,主要确诊方法为静脉肾盂造影。损伤位于输尿管下段6例,入盆腔段2例。2例早期发现者均行开腹手术修补,晚期发现者,2例输尿管置管成功,3例置管当时失败,1例置管后又出现尿瘘行开腹修补。预后均较好。结论输尿管损伤是妇科腹腔镜手术少见而严重的并发症。术后引流量的异常增多以及出现发热、腰腹痛、急腹症、阴道流水等症状时,应警惕输尿管损伤的可能。治疗以手术为主。     

Laparoscopic repair of ureteral injuries

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To assess the outcome of laparoscopic repair of pelvic ureter injuries. DESIGN: Retrospective case series (Canadian Task Force classification II-2). SETTING: Large urban tertiary care medical center. PATIENTS: Four women who had pelvic ureter injuries and laparoscopic repair during laparoscopic gynecologic procedures. INTERVENTION: Laparoscopic ureteroureterostomy. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: All injuries were identified immediately and repaired laparoscopically. No patient required repeat surgery. On assessment by physical examination, serum creatinine, and intravenous urogram, no patient had evidence of renal insufficiency. One woman had a narrowing at the site of ureteroureterostomy 6 weeks after repair; it was resolved on urogram 8 months after the injury. CONCLUSION: Laparoscopic ureteroureterostomy is feasible in some cases of ureteral injury. Experience with laparoscopic suturing is necessary to perform this procedure.     

高位宫骶韧带悬吊术在盆底重建中的应用

重度盆腔器官脱垂（pelvic organ prolapse，POP）多需手术治疗。POP修复术后复发是困扰临床医生的主要问题。临床研究表明，顶端加固不足是手术后复发的主要高危因素。作为经典的Ⅰ水平悬吊术之一，高位宫骶韧带悬吊术（HUS）可为阴道顶端提供有力支持，并且术后阴道长度及轴向更符合生理解剖。HUS有经腹及经阴道路径。经阴道HUS方便同时行阴道前后壁修补，但因术野暴露困难、有输尿管损伤风险而限制了其在我国的推广应用。保留子宫经阴道腹膜外高位宫骶韧带悬吊术（EHUS）可清晰识别宫骶韧带，输尿管损伤风险低，操作简便，近期疗效好，远期疗效尚待进一步临床研究。     

Use of a Novel Fluorescent Catheter to Locate the Ureters during Total Laparoscopic Hysterectomy

Ureteral injury can occur during total laparoscopic hysterectomy. This report documents our experience in using the near-infrared ray catheter (NIRC), a newly developed fluorescent ureteral catheter made of material that contains a fluorescent dye to improve visualization of the ureters. We have used the device in 3 patients between 40 and 50 years of age (mean, 46.3 ± 4.5 years) undergoing total laparoscopic hysterectomy and bilateral salpingectomy for uterine myomas. The time of catheter insertion ranged from 4 minutes and 9 seconds to 10 minutes and 57 seconds. A number of intraoperative procedures were performed near the ureters, namely, identification and ligation of the uterine arteries, dissection of the cardinal ligament, incision of the vaginal canal, and suturing of the vaginal stump. The abovementioned fluorescent ureteral catheter appears green on a monitor when illuminated by near-infrared light, and this facilitated real-time confirmation of the ureter positions, increasing surgical safety. The patients were followed up for 6 months postoperatively, and no urinary tract infection or injury was found. Prophylactic use of the fluorescent ureteral catheter may improve visualization of the ureters in patients considered to be at high risk of ureteral injury, such as those expected to exhibit ureteral deviation due to severe adhesions or an enlarged uterus and when the surgeon has little experience in laparoscopic surgery.     

Outcome of laparoscopic repair of ureteral injury: follow-up of twelve cases

Study ObjectiveTo review the feasibility of laparoscopic repair in cases of ureteral injuries occurring during gynecologic laparoscopy.DesignRetrospective study (Canadian Task Force classification II-3).SettingInstitution-specific retrospective review of data from a tertiary referral medical center.PatientsPatients suffering from iatrogenic ureteral injuries diagnosed during or after surgery, and cases with deliberate ureteral resection and repair because of underlying disease.Measurements and Main ResultsWe conducted a retrospective review of all (10 345) laparoscopic gynecologic surgeries performed in our institute between February 2004 and November 2008. Twelve cases (median: 45.5 years, range: 27–63) of ureter transections were diagnosed and repaired laparoscopically by endoscopists. Of these, 10 had previous surgeries, pelvic adhesions, or a large pelvic-abdominal mass. One patient had undergone a segmental resection and laparoscopic ureteroureterostomy for deep infiltrative endometriosis. Of the remaining 11 iatrogenic ureteral transections, 10 were repaired via laparoscopic ureteroureterostomy, whereas 1 had undergone a laparoscopic ureteroneocystostomy. One injury was recognized on the second postoperative day, but intraoperative recognition was attained in 11 cases. The median duration of double J stenting was 73 days. Three patients had development of strictures (between 42 and 79 days after surgery) treated with restenting, but 1 had to undergo an ureteroneocystostomy for ureter disruption when trying to restent. One patient had development of leakage of the anastomotic site but recovered with a change of the double J stent. Only 1 case required another laparotomy for ureteroneocystostomy. Laparoscopic primary repair of ureteral injury was successful for 11 of 12 patients. All the patients were well and symptom free at the conclusion of the study period.ConclusionEarly recognition and treatment of ureteral injuries are important to prevent morbidity. Laparoscopic ureteroureterostomy could be considered in transections of the ureter where technical expertise is available. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest series, to date, of ureteral repairs via laparoscopy.     

Pelvic endometriosis and ureteral obstruction.

Pelvic endometriosis may completely obstruct the ureters and destroy the kidneys with little or no gynecologic symptoms. Five cases are discussed, all causing ureteral obstruction. Two patients suffered the complete loss of a kidney and in each case the remaining kidney was in jeopardy because of partial obstruction due to endometriosis. All these patients were treated by complete removal of all ovarian tissue, dissection of the ureter, and dissection of the scar tissue. In severe cases, retroperitoneal clamping of the infundibular pelvic ligament with clear exposure of the ureter is mandatory to avoid leaving small remnants of ovary in the infundibular ligament clamp. With complete removal of all ovarian tissue, postoperative estrogen therapy will not cause recurrence of the disease.     

妇产科盆腔手术中输尿管损伤96例分析

目的 :探讨妇产科盆腔手术中减少及避免输尿管损伤的措施。方法 :回顾分析妇产科盆腔手术所致输尿管损伤 96例的临床资料。结果 :术中及时发现和术后 4 8h内明确诊断 5 6例 ,均Ⅰ期修复成功 ;术后延迟诊断明确 4 0例 ,除 2例行肾切除术、1例死亡外 ,37例经暂时性尿流改道后 ,Ⅱ期修复成功。结论 :手术野渗液多 ,输尿管扩张 ,术后腰腹疼痛 ,不明原因发热伴切口渗液 ,无尿或腹腔积液等应考虑输尿管损伤的可能。术前充分准备 ,进行相关检查 ,术中分清解剖关系 ,细心操作 ,术后密切观察是防治输尿管损伤的关键     

Laparoscopic repair of ureteral injuries

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the laparoscopic approach for repairing ureteral injuries, and assess the effect of ureteral dissection (ureterolysis) on tissue healing. DESIGN: Randomized animal study (Canadian Task Force classification I). SETTING: Biological Resources Unit, Cleveland Clinic Foundation. SUBJECTS: Ten pigs. INTERVENTION: In all animals, the pelvic segment of the right ureter was completely dissected off the pelvic sidewall and peritoneum. In group A, both pelvic ureters were divided with scissors and repaired over a stent; in group B the ureters were coagulated and anastomosis was performed after resection of the necrotic segment. Laparoscopic intracorporeal suturing techniques were used for end-to-end ureteral anastomosis. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: All animals survived without complications. Ureteral stents were removed 4 weeks after repair. Creatinine level and retrograde pyelogram performed before injury and 12 weeks after repair were compared. At necropsy anastomoses were evaluated for leak, pressure flow studies, and histopathology. All anastomoses were patent with no leak. Although serum creatinine level increased significantly after repair (p = 0.001), this increase never reached levels found in renal failure, and all animals continued to do well and have good appetite (mean increase in body weight 20.3 +/- 6.2 kg). Mild hydronephrosis was diagnosed in three kidneys, all on the right side. Mild ureteral dilatation occurred bilaterally; it was significant on the right side (3.8 +/- 3.8 mm, p = 0.05) but not on the left (1.7 +/- 2 mm, p = 0.3). Results of pressure flow studies did not reveal significant obstruction at anastomoses. Healing around the dissected right ureter was marked with dense fibrosis, adhesions, and scar formation. On histopathology the right ureter showed more urothelial abnormalities than the left, with marked fibrosis and sclerosis in the muscularis and adventitial layers. CONCLUSION: Ureterolysis may interfere with the healing process of ureteral injuries by increasing fibrosis and adventitial scarring. Laparoscopic repair of these injuries is feasible and safe.     

Location of the ureters in relation to the uterine cervix by computed tomography

OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine the distance of the ureter from the cervix and the influence of age and weight on this distance. STUDY DESIGN: The distance of the ureter from the uterine cervix was determined by evaluating the computed pelvic tomograms from 52 women. Age and body mass index were compared to this distance by means of regression analysis. RESULTS: At the most dorsal reflection of the ureter, the average distance from ureter to cervical margin was 2.3 +/- 0.8 cm (range, 0.1-5.3 cm). There was no relationship to age, but there was a linear relationship between this distance and body mass index (R2 = 0.075; P = .049); thus the ureter was slightly more proximal to the cervical margin in heavier women. CONCLUSIONS: In women with apparently normal pelvic anatomy, the average distance between the ureter and cervix is >2 cm. The finding that this distance is <0.5 cm in 12% of the women studied may explain the relatively common occurrence of ureteral injury during hysterectomy. The relationship between body mass index and location is clinically insignificant.     

Laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy for patients with extensive pelvic adhesions: a strategy to minimise conversion to laparotomy

AIM: To evaluate a strategy for successful laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy (LAVH) in patients with extensive pelvic adhesion. METHODS: Two hundred and thirty-six patients who underwent LAVH at National Taiwan University Hospital were retrospectively enrolled. Twenty-three patients (9.7%) had unexpected extensive pelvic adhesions. A special procedure of uterine artery preligation through retroperitoneal downstream ureter tracking was applied to overcome this problem. The clinical characteristics of the study group were analysed. The operative parameters and the outcome were compared between those with and without extensive pelvic adhesions. RESULTS: Having extensive adhesions, 17 patients were associated with endometriosis and the other six were secondary to previous Caesarean delivery or pelvic inflammation. The cul-de-sac was partially and totally obliterated in 10 and 13 patients, respectively. These 23 patients had longer operation time (184 vs 146 min, P < 0.05), more blood loss (146 vs 89 mL, P < 0.05), but smaller extirpated uteri (278 vs 372 g, P = 0.063), compared with the other 213 patients. The average hospital stay was comparable (3.2 vs 3.4 days) and there were no ureteral injuries or excessive bleeding. Most importantly, not a single case was converted to laparotomy. CONCLUSION: Pelvic adhesions of various underlying diseases are associated with increased complication and conversion rates during LAVH. Although this technique is not new, we believe that the special procedure of uterine artery preligation through retroperitoneal downstream ureter tracking may provide a safe approach for general gynecologists to complete successful LAVH in patients with unexpected extensive pelvic adhesions.