TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand mediates human neuronal apoptosis: links to HIV-1-associated dementia

TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a type II integral membrane protein that interacts with multiple receptors and cell types including neurons. In this report, TRAIL protein levels were increased in human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) after HIV-1 infection and immune activation. In HIV-1 encephalitic (HIVE) human brain tissue, TRAIL-expressing macrophages were found in association with active caspase-3 positive neurons. Cytotoxic TRAIL receptors 1 and 2 were expressed on neurons in primary human fetal cultures and HIV-1 encephalitic brain tissue. Furthermore, TRAIL induced a dose-dependent effect on neuronal apoptosis. These results support a role for TRAIL in mononuclear phagocyte (MP)-mediated neurotoxicity in HIV-1-associated dementia (HAD).     

TRAIL-induced death of human adult oligodendrocytes is mediated by JNK pathway

Tumor necrosis-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) induces apoptosis of oligodendrocytes, target cells of immune attack in multiple sclerosis (MS). TRAIL-induced human oligodendrocyte (hOL) death depends on TRAIL ligation with its receptor 1 (TRAIL-R1). However, the intracellular signaling initiated with ligation of TRAIL-R1 in hOLs is unknown. We defined that intracellular transduction signaling involved in TRAIL-induced death of hOLs is associated with strong activation of c-jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) and a dominant negative mutant of MKK4/SEK1, MAP kinase upstream of JNK, inhibited TRAIL-induced apoptosis of hOLs. The immunoprecipitation experiments showed that JNK3 isoform was predominantly activated upon hOLs exposure to TRAIL and JNK-3 activation occurred before mitochondrial membrane dysfunction. The other mitogen-activated protein kinase p38 and ERK, as well as calpains and serine proteases, were not activated during TRAIL-induced hOL death. Accordingly, the calpain inhibitor, ZLLY.FMK, p38 kinase inhibitor, SB 203580, and serine proteases inhibitor, TPCK, did not protect hOLs from TRAIL-induced apoptosis. These results demonstrate that JNK pathway is critically involved in hOL death induced by TRAIL and might have significant importance in designing new molecules to protect immune-mediated hOLs demise.     

Stromal cell-derived factor 1-mediated CXCR4 signaling in rat and human cortical neural progenitor cells

Stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) and the chemokine receptor CXCR4 are highly expressed in the nervous system. Knockout studies have suggested that both SDF-1 and CXCR4 play essential roles in cerebellar, hippocampal, and neocortical neural cell migration during embryogenesis. To extend these observations, CXCR4 signaling events in rat and human neural progenitor cells (NPCs) were examined. Our results show that CXCR4 is expressed in abundance on rat and human NPCs. Moreover, SDF-1alpha induced increased NPCs levels of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate, extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2, Akt, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and intracellular calcium whereas it diminished cyclic adenosine monophosphate. Finally, SDF-1alpha can induce human NPC chemotaxis in vitro, suggesting that CXCR4 plays a functional role in NPC migration. Both T140, a CXCR4 antagonist, and pertussis toxin (PTX), an inactivator of G protein-coupled receptors, abrogated these events. Ultimately, this study suggested that SDF-1alpha can influence NPC function through CXCR4 and that CXCR4 is functional on NPC.     

Mcl-1 regulates the survival of adult neural precursor cells

Since the discovery of neural precursor cells (NPCs) in the adult mammalian brain, there has been a lot of excitement surrounding the potential for regeneration in the adult brain. For instance, many studies have shown that a significant number of NPCs will migrate to a site of injury and differentiate into all of the neural lineages. However, one of the main challenges affecting endogenous neural regeneration is that many of the NPCs that migrate to the injury site ultimately undergo apoptosis. Therefore, we sought to determine whether myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1), an anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein, would promote the survival of adult NPCs by impeding apoptosis. To do this, we first confirmed that Mcl-1 is endogenously expressed within the adult NPC population using BrdU labeling assays. Next, we conditionally deleted Mcl-1 in adult NPCs using cre/lox technology and expressed Cre from the NPC-specific promoter Nestin. In vitro, cells that had Mcl-1 conditionally deleted had a 2-fold increase in apoptosis when compared to controls. In vivo, we used electroporation to conditionally delete Mcl-1 in adult NPCs and assessed apoptosis at 72h. after electroporation. As in our in vitro results, there was a 2-fold increase in apoptosis when Mcl-1 was conditionally deleted. Finally, we found that Mcl-1 over-expression reduced the endogenous rate of adult NPC apoptosis 2-fold in vitro. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Mcl-1 is crucial for the survival of adult NPCs and may be a promising target for future neural regeneration therapies.     

去甲基药、化疗药及TRAIL联合诱导神经母细胞瘤细胞凋亡的研究

目的探讨去甲基药5-氮杂胞苷、肿瘤坏死因子相关凋亡诱导配体（TRAIL）及化疗药联合诱导神经母细胞瘤细胞株SH-SYSY（SYSY）凋亡的作用及其发生机制。方法应用逆转录-聚合酶链反应（RT-PCR）方法检测5-氮杂胞苷作用前后SYSY细胞caspase-8的表达；应用四甲基偶氮唑蓝（MTT）比色法及流式细胞仪检测TRAIL、5-氮杂胞苷＋TRAIL、5-氮杂胞苷＋caspase-8抑制剂zIETD-FMK＋TRAIL及5-氮杂胞苷＋化疗药＋TRAIL对SYSY细胞生长及凋亡的影响。结果SYSY细胞不表达caspase-8，5-氮杂胞苷作用1、3、5、7d的SY5Y细胞caspase-8表达逐渐增加。SY5Y细胞对TRAIL不敏感，经5-氮杂胞苷诱导表达caspase-8的SY5Y细胞对TRAIL敏感；化疗药可增强SYSY细胞对TRAIL的敏感性。结论5-氮杂胞苷可通过上调SYSY细胞caspase-8表达而逆转SYSY细胞对TRAIL诱导凋亡的耐受，化疗药可进一步增强TRAIL对SYSY细胞的诱导凋亡作用。     

Stem-cell-like glioma cells are resistant to TRAIL/Apo2L and exhibit down-regulation of caspase-8 by promoter methylation

Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL/Apo2L) is a promising cancer drug. However, many tumours are resistant to TRAIL-based therapies. Glioma cells with stem cell features (SCG), such as CD133 expression and neurosphere formation, have been recently identified to be more resistant to cytotoxic drugs than glioma cells lacking stem-cell-like features (NSCGs). Here we report that SCGs are completely resistant to 100–2,000 ng/ml TRAIL, whereas NSCGs revealed a moderate sensitivity to TRAIL. We found that SCGs exhibited only low levels of caspase-8 mRNA and protein, known to be indispensable for TRAIL-induced apoptosis. In addition, we detected hypermethylation of CASP8 promoter in SCGs, whereas NSCGs exhibited a non-methylated CASP8 promoter. Reexpression of caspase-8 by 5-Aza-2′-deoxycytidine was not sufficient to restore TRAIL sensitivity in SCGs cells, suggesting that additional factors cause TRAIL resistance in SCGs. Our data suggest that therapy with TRAIL, either as monotherapy or in combination with demethylating agents, is not effective in treating glioblastoma because SCGs are not targeted by such treatment.     

Expression and functional activity of osteoprotegerin in human malignant gliomas

Apo2L/TRAIL-based therapy is a promising experimental approach to the treatment of human malignant gliomas. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a soluble decoy receptor for Apo2L/TRAIL that antagonizes Apo2L/TRAIL-induced apoptosis. High levels of OPG expressed by tumor cells might therefore abrogate the activity of exogenously added or adenovirally expessed Apo2L/TRAIL. Here we assessed the expression of OPG in human gliomas in vivo, in primary glioma cell cultures and in established glioma cell lines. Immunohistochemistry revealed weak OPG immunoreactivity in up to 5% of the tumor cells in 8 of 13 glioblastomas. Strong OPG labeling was detected in single scattered tumor cells in one of these specimens. Five glioblastomas did not express OPG. High OPG expression was found in 1 of 6 primary glioma cell cultures and in 1 of 12 established glioma cell lines, T98G. OPG released by T98G cells was biologically active in that it inhibited Apo2L/TRAIL-induced apoptosis in sensitive glioma cells. Altogether, however, these data suggest that OPG expression may not be a major pathway of glioma cell resistance to future Apo2L/TRAIL-based therapeutic approaches.     

Cross-talk between CD4+ T-cells and neural stem/progenitor cells

Immune-neural interactions dictate both lesion formation and repair in multiple sclerosis (MS). MS pathogenesis is mediated by the interplay of invading immune cells, neurons, glia, and endogenous stores of neural stem/progenitor cells (NPCs). However, the signals important in this cross-talk are not well defined. We utilized a co-culture method and flow cytometric analysis capable of detecting outcomes for both cell types. Here we describe the effects of NPCs on three different CD4+ subtypes (Th1, Th2, and Th17) and vice versa. Utilizing lpr (Fas receptor-deficient) and gld (Fas ligand-deficient) NPC lines, we further define the role of Fas in this neuroimmune cross-talk. We show that only the Th1 subtype is capable of inducing NPC cell death, and this is independent of Fas activation. Conversely, NPCs specifically kill pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cells in a contact-dependent manner without affecting Th2 survival. Further investigation into these effects revealed that FasL expressed by NPCs mediates Th17 apoptosis. Additionally NPC/T-cell cross-talk modulates FasL expression in both cell types, while Fas receptor levels remains static. These findings illuminate the direct neuropathogenic effects of T-cells, as well as help define the immunomodulatory capacity of NPCs. We have elucidated novel interactions that may be critical in MS pathogenesis.     

Fas activation increases neural progenitor cell survival

Although there is a sizable amount of research focusing on adult neural progenitor cells (NPCs) as a therapeutic approach for many neurodegenerative diseases, including multiple sclerosis, little is known about the pathways that govern NPC survival and apoptosis. Fas, a member of the death receptor superfamily, plays a well‐characterized role in the immune system, but its function in neural stem cells remains uncertain. Our study focuses on the effects of Fas on NPC survival in vitro. Activation of Fas by recombinant Fas ligand (FasL) did not induce apoptosis in murine NPCs in culture. In fact, both an increase in the amount of viable cells and a decrease in apoptotic and dying cells were observed with FasL treatment. Our data indicate that FasL‐mediated adult NPC neuroprotection is characterized by a reduction in apoptosis, but not increased proliferation. Further investigation of this effect revealed that the antiapoptotic effects of FasL are mediated by the up‐regulation of Birc3, an inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP). Conversely, the observed effect is not the result of altered caspase activation or FLIP (Fas‐associated death domain‐like interleukin‐1beta‐converting enzyme inhibitory protein) up‐regulation, which is known to inhibit caspase‐8‐mediated cell death in T cells. Our data indicate that murine adult NPCs are resistant to FasL‐induced cell death. Activation of Fas increased cell survival by decreasing apoptosis through Birc3 up‐regulation. These results describe a novel pathway involved in NPC survival. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

TRAIL诱发人脑H4神经胶质瘤细胞凋亡的研究

目的研究TRAIL对H4神经胶质瘤细胞的凋亡诱导作用，并探讨其可能机制。方法利用显微镜、透射电镜、流式细胞仪，观察和检测TRAIL对传代培养的肿瘤细胞的凋亡诱导作用，用MTT法检测easpase-8抑制剂zIETD—fmk对TRAIL凋亡诱导作用的抑制情况。结果TRAIL作用后镜下可见到H4细胞凋亡的典型表现；在流式细胞仪检测PI荧光直方图上，出现典型的亚二倍体峰，随着作用时间的延长，H4细胞凋亡率明显增加；zIETD—fmk能显著抑制TRAIL对H4细胞的凋亡诱导作用。结论TRAIL可有效的诱导H4神经胶质瘤细胞凋亡；easpase-8在H4瘤细胞的凋亡过程发挥着重要作用，TRAIL可能是通过激活caspase系统而诱发H4瘤细胞凋亡的。     

Lithium inhibits apoptosis of mouse neural progenitor cells

As undifferentiated precursor cells in the CNS, neural progenitor cells (NPCs) supply new neurons and glial cells to repair damage within the adult brain. Recently, NPCs were found to undergo apoptosis. In serum-free basic fibroblast growth factor-containing culture medium, primary culture cells from fetal mouse neuroepithelium expressed nestin, and thus might be regarded as NPCs. These NPCs demonstrated apoptosis under electron microscopy and TUNEL assay. Treatment of NPCs with lithium, a specific inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3beta), significantly suppressed apoptosis. Activity of pro-apoptotic protease caspase-3 was not detected in either lithium-untreated or -treated NPCs. These findings suggest that lithium may protect NPCs against apoptosis by inhibiting caspase-3-independent apoptotic pathways.     

Induction of TRAIL-mediated glioma cell death by human T cells.

Among the death ligands of the tumor necrosis factor/nerve growth factor (TNF/NGF) superfamily, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is considered to play a unique role due to its binding to both apoptosis-inducing and -blocking membranous receptors, apoptosis-independent effects and distinct species differences. Here, we demonstrate that human antigen-specific T helper cells upon activation are capable of directly lysing glioma cell lines via TRAIL receptor/TRAIL interactions. Out of 17 T cell lines, nine showed predominantly TRAIL-mediated killing of glioma cell lines compared to CD95 ligand- or TNF-induced cell death. The cytotoxic potential of the T cell lines was independent of T helper differentiation, antigen specificity and donor source. Thus, TRAIL-mediated signaling is involved in T cell cytotoxicity towards glioma cell lines, which might play an important role in tumor regression.     

mGluR5 is involved in proliferation of rat neural progenitor cells exposed to hypoxia with activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway

Hypoxia/ischemia induces proliferation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) in rodent and human brain; however, the mechanisms remain unknown. We investigated the effects of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) on NPC proliferation under hypoxia, the expression of cyclin D1, and the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathway in cell culture. The results showed that hypoxia induced mGluR5 expression on NPCs in vitro. Under hypoxia, the mGluR5 agonists DHPG and CHPG significantly increased NPC proliferation in cell activity, diameter of neurospheres, bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation and cell division, and expression of cyclin D1, with decreasing cell death. The mGluR5 siRNA and antagonist MPEP decreased the NPC proliferation and expression of cyclin D1, with increasing cell death. Phosphorylated JNK and ERK increased with the proliferation of NPCs after DHPG and CHPG treatment under hypoxia, while p-p38 level decreased. These results demonstrate that the expression of mGluR5 was upregulated during the proliferation of rat NPCs stimulated by hypoxia in vitro. The activation of the ERK and JNK signaling pathway and the expression of cyclin D1 were increased in this process. These finding suggest the involvement of mGluR5 in rat NPC proliferation and provide a target molecule in neural repair after ischemia/hypoxia injury of CNS.     

Role of ERK activation in cisplatin-induced apoptosis in A172 human glioma cells

Cisplatin activates multiple signal transduction pathways associated with cell survival and apoptosis in various cell types. The present study was undertaken to determine the role of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK), a member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase family, in cisplatin-induced apoptosis in human glioma cells. Cisplatin resulted in apoptosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Cisplatin-induced apoptosis was prevented by the hydrogen peroxide scavenger pyruvate and the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine, but not by the superoxide scavenger tiron. Western blot analysis demonstrated that cisplatin treatment induced time-dependent activation of ERK, which was inhibited by chemical inhibitors of the MEK signaling pathway (PD98059 and U0126) and N-acetylcysteine. These inhibitors prevented cisplatin-induced cell death. Transient transfection of constitutive active MEK1 increased cisplatin-induced apoptosis. Cisplatin resulted in a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential and its effect was prevented by N-acetylcysteine and PD98059. Caspase inhibitors (Boc-D-FMK and zDEVD-FMK) protected against cisplatin-induced cell death. Cisplatin-induced activation of caspase-3 was inhibited by N-acetylcysteine and PD98059. Taken together, these findings suggest that the ERK activation plays an active role in mediating cisplatin-induced apoptosis of human glioma cells and functions upstream of mitochondrial dysfunction and caspase activation to the initiate the apoptotic signal.     

Induction of Apoptosis by KI0477959 through Activation of Caspase-3 in Human Leukemia Cell Line,HL-60 Cells

KI0477959 (Herbkines) has been used for the purpose of development of physical strength in wasting diseases, like cancer. In the present study, apoptosis-inducing activities of butanol fraction of KI0477959 were studied in human leukemia cell line, HL-60 cells. KI0477959 increased cytotoxicity but had less effect on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. KI0477959-induced apoptosis was accompanied by activation of caspase-3 and specific proteolytic cleavage of poly-ADP-ribose polymerase. Increased apoptosis was reduced by treatment with p38 and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) inhibitors. These results suggest that KI0477959 induces apoptosis through activation of caspase-3, p38, and ERK in HL-60 cells.     

肿瘤坏死因子相关凋亡诱导配体诱导胶质瘤细胞凋亡机制研究

目的 探讨肿瘤坏死因子相关凋亡诱导配体(TRAIL)诱导胶质瘤细胞凋亡的机制.方法 以人重组可溶性TRAIL蛋白(rsTRAIL)处理人胶质瘤细胞U87;AnnexinV-FITC/PI双染色流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡;DiOC6荧光染色流式细胞术检测细胞线粒体跨膜电位(△ψm);比色法测定细胞caspase-3、8、9活性的变化;ELISA法检测胞浆cytC浓度;观察caspase-8阻断剂(Z-IETD-fmk)对U87细胞凋亡、△ψm和caspase-3、8、9活性变化的影响. 结果 rsTRAIL以时间依赖方式诱导U87细胞凋亡.同时导致U87细胞△ψm进行性下降,caspase-3、8、9活性及胞浆内cyt C浓度升高:caspase-8阻断剂可明显减弱rsTRAIL对U87细胞的上述生物学效应. 结论 TRAU通过激活caspase-8间接启动线粒体凋亡途径诱导恶性胶质瘤细胞U87凋亡.     

Induction of apoptosis by KI0477959 through activation of caspase-3 in human leukemia cell line, HL-60 cells

KI0477959 (Herbkines) has been used for the purpose of development of physical strength in wasting diseases, like cancer. In the present study, apoptosis-inducing activities of butanol fraction of KI0477959 were studied in human leukemia cell line, HL-60 cells. KI0477959 increased cytotoxicity but had less effect on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. KI0477959-induced apoptosis was accompanied by activation of caspase-3 and specific proteolytic cleavage of poly-ADP-ribose polymerase. Increased apoptosis was reduced by treatment with p38 and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) inhibitors. These results suggest that KI0477959 induces apoptosis through activation of caspase-3, p38, and ERK in HL-60 cells.     

Role of monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1 (MCP‐1/CCL2) in migration of neural progenitor cells toward glial tumors

Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) have been investigated as potential vehicles for brain tumor therapy because they have been shown to migrate toward central nervous system gliomas and can be genetically engineered to deliver cytotoxic agents to tumors. The mechanisms that regulate migration of NPCs to tumors are not fully understood. By means of microarray analysis, polymerase chain reaction, enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay, and immunohistochemistry, we found that monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1 (MCP‐1/CCL‐2) was expressed in experimental brain tumor cells in vivo and in vitro. CCR2, the receptor for MCP‐1, was expressed on C17.2 NPCs. We used a modified Boyden chamber assay and found increased migration of NPCs in vitro in response to MCP‐1. By means of an in vivo model for NPC migration, we found evidence of NPC migration toward areas of MCP‐1 infusion in rat brains. An understanding of NPC migration mechanisms may be used to enhance delivery of cytotoxic agents to brain tumor cells. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.