Methodological Reflections on Using the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale as a Measure to Make Cross-National Evaluations of Quality

How useful is the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS) as a research instrument in making cross-national comparisons of the quality of nurseries?

The paper briefly outlines the ECERS and discusses the extent to which it can be used as a universal evaluative tool to measure quality. The author reflects on her use of the ECERS scale in cross-national contexts, to comment on its advantages and its limitations.

The author used the ECERS as part of a qualitative investigation into nursery provision and practice between 1991 and 1994 in cities in fourcountries, New York, (USA) Harnosand, (Sweden), Arezzo (Italy) and Barcelona (Spain). The nurseries in which the author carried out observations and interviews were chosen by contacts in the countries concerned for both their willingness to participate and for their representativeness. A minimum of four institutions which took children under three were visited for at least half a day in each city.

The author uses examples derived from this research to argue that while the scale may have some advantages in that, ratings can be undertaken in two hours, and the scale can provide comparison measures on a number of criteria which child care professionals have agreed are significant, it also has a number of disadvantages. Because the scale is empirically rather than theoretically based and is not explicit about the evaluative categories, which underlie it, its use can obscure rather than illuminate, what different countries see as the most significant aspects of their care and education provision.

The paper concludes that we need to develop measurement tools which explicitly state the values and theoretical perspectives behind their construction.     

Food behaviors of young children: Cognitive and attitudinal factors

Young children's diets are determined to a large degree by their mothers' nutritional knowledge and food attitudes. The primary purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of mothers' nutritional knowledge and food attitudes on their children's nutritional knowledge and food behavior.

The subjects were 159 children. They ranged in ages from 7 to 9 years old. Their mothers also participated in the study.

Bivariate relationships between pairs of variables were tested using the Pearson product-moment correlation. The major findings were:

(1) Children's nutritional knowledge was related to their mothers' nutritional knowledge and attitudes of sociability.

(2) Mothers' nutritional knowledge was related to their attitudes of sociability and frugality. Nutritional knowledge was negatively correlated with mother's attitudes toward health and social status.

(3) Children's food behavior was related to their nutritional knowledge and their mothers' nutritional knowledge.     

Effect of Intervention on the Language Facility of Poor, Black Adolescent Mothers and their Preschool Children

This study investigates the effects of varying degrees of mother-child language stimulation activities on the test performance of poor Black children and their adolescent mothers.

The sample consisted of 60 mothers paired with their three or four year old children who attended full day preschool. The families were randomly assigned to one of three groups for a twelve week period.

The tests used in the study were the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; the Cultural Language Test — Mean Length of Utterance; the Cultural Language Test — Standard English; and the Conversation — Mean Length of Utterance Measure.

Three major findings result from the study:

1. The children of mothers provided with intensive training and practice (Group 1) scored significantly higher on all four tests than did the children whose mothers received minimal help (Group 2) or children whose mothers received no help at all (Group 3).
2. Group 2 children did not score any higher than did Group 3.
3. Group 1 mothers scored significantly higher on all measures.

     

Too early to school?

This paper examines the dangers and problems inherent in the prevalent practice of introducing academic work into Nigeria Nursery School Curriculum.

The paper presents research data from the fields of developmental psychology and education, which establish that nursery school children are not developmen-tally ready for academic work. Similarly data on the objectives of nursery education are used to establish that nursery school is not an ideal setting for the teaching of academic skills as stated in the National Policy on Education.

The paper concludes with a number of proposals on how to develop a virile Nursery Education practice in Nigeria which provides adequately for the socio-cultural peculiarities in the lives of Nigerian Pre-School children.     

Third World children: promise and problems

Children as they are born into the world are a bundle of human potential. This potential must be nurtured and educated if these children are to make a contribution to the world society. Third World children hold the same promise as other children if they are born to healthy mothers. Societies must contribute both physical resources and human resources for this promise to be fulfilled.

Many Third World children need immunizations, better nutrition, oral rehydration therapy, and educational opportunities if they are to survive and reach their potential.

A proposal is made for international development agencies to help fund child care centers which could become a focus of many services for both the children and their families.     

“caught in the middle” exploring children and young people's experience of domestic violence

This document seeks to explore children's experiences of domestic violence and the effects such violence may have on their lives, both in the short term and in the long term. It draws on the conclusions of various studies in this area which have been carried out in America and the United Kingdom. It aims to raise awareness of the complexity of this issue and to highlight the importance of support for both women and children who may be survivors of domestic violence. The document highlights a number of issues, namely

How children and young people may experience domestic violence;

Identification of links between domestic violence and child abuse;

The impact domestic violence may have on mothering;

The effects domestic violence may have on children and young people's lives;

The legitimacy of the cycle of violence theory;

Issues to be considered when assessing the possible impact of domestic violence on children and young people.     

NIGERIAN CHILDREN'S PERSPECTIVE OF URBAN LIFE QUALITY

The Convention on the Rights of the child put in place some set of standards to ensure that in all consenting countries every child is wanted, healthy, educated, safe and loved. Nigeria is one of the countries that has taken some steps to put into practice the accepted rights.

Two hundred children (100 boys and 100 girls) in primary schools in four urban centres were served with questionnaires requesting their views on issues bordering on their well being and quality of life, in such areas as:

1. quality of education
2. space for movement and play
3. food and clean water for drinking and washing
4. play equipment and materials and
5. loving care giver.

The children's responses showed that provision was not made for recreational space for play, the quality of education is poor, there was no provision for play equipment and material and in most cases the adult-child ration was low. Children also complained of polluted environment.

Suggestions were made for the provision of adequate play parks for recreational purposes for the children. Suggestion is also made for government to pay more attention to the well being and health of the children.     

Psychological screening in the course of the health control of four-year-old children

The health control of four-year-old Swedish children will include an examination of possible psychologtcal abnormalities and defects. The methods which have been worked out for this purpose by a committee of the Social Council include two main components. A nurse will carry out an interview with the child's caretaker and then evaluate the child's behavior. In addition, a physician will make an attempt to evaluate the child's development. The “risk children” will then be selected for further psychological investigation.

An attempt has been made to test the efficiency of the screening methods mentioned. The evaluations by the child care centers have been compared to more comprehensive clinical-psychological investigations and the results show good agreement between the two teams.

The Investigation has been carried out at PBU, Stockholm (Chief physician Hans Curman, psychologist Lillian Gottfarb).     

The effect of maternal employment during preschool years on school readiness

Many children referred because of “learning disability” have mothers in full-time employment. This study was undertaken to examine the effect of maternal employment on school readiness.

One hundred and seven children were studied. Forty-six were the offspring of women who had not gone out to work since the birth of the child (group A). The mothers of the other 61 had worked for 1 year or more during the lifetime of the child (group B). The mother of each child completed a detailed questionnaire. Each child was subjected to standardized tests of reasoning, numerical ability, Gestalt, verbal comprehension, eye-hand co-ordination, visual and auditory perception and IQ. Groups A and B were compared with regard to marital status of parents, their educational attainments, family size, ordinal position of the index child and years of nursery school experience.

Educational attainments of both fathers and mothers were significantly higher in group A and children had spent significantly longer at nursery school. Group B (working mothers) had a predictably higher incidence of single parents. Comparison of results showed no significant difference between groups A and B for 6 of the 8 tests administered. Group B results did not differ significantly when divided into categories according to years of maternal employment. The study suggests that there is no direct relationship between maternal employment and maturity at school entry.     

Co-operating to protect children -shifting the thresholds

It is now 30 years since Kempe delivered his watershed address to the American Academy of Paediatricians graphically describing the battered child syndrome. In the 30 years that followed elaborate child protection procedures, supported by strong legal powers, have developed not only in the UK and the USA but also in may countries around the world. In the last 5 years or so, however, there has been another great watershed. Independently in both the USA and in the UK, evidence has accumulated which is questioning the efficacy of our elaborate child protection systems. For social workers in the UK the history is familiar; the child abuse inquiries leading on to the Cleveland Inquiry, on going scandals in residential care and concern about the outcomes for children in the public care system, and, finally, the recent message from the Department of Health in 1995 “Child Protection - Messages from Research”. Less familiar will be the concerns which emerged in the USA. There, following the introduction of mandatory reporting which in some states is mandatory even for civil citizens, there was a huge rise in the number of children reported (3 million reported in 1992 of which less than half were substantiated). This largely incapacitated the child protection agencies and led to large numbers of children being admitted into the public care. In 1990 the US Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect concluded that there was an urgent need to develop new approaches.

The answer put forward in this country and the USA has been the rediscovery of targeted preventive approaches. Central to these approaches is what we call family support and what is called social support in the USA.

Child protection is an important and demanding activity

- research and our own limited local information does pose serious questions about the efficacy of the process;

- this points to the need for reviews by area child protection committees;

- research also tells us important things about the characteristics of families involved especially about their social and economic circumstances. These need to be addressed.

Addressing these needs requires several things

- a good individual assessment and population assessment to plan appropriate services;

- a sound interagency/multiprofessional approach;

- maximising all the resource options and taking a broader view of the task - as well as mainstream services as currently arranged, we need to embrace a community development approach and to view die families involved in terms of their inclusion or exclusion from society and address these shortfalls.

We are only at the threshold of the implementation of the Order and we need to approach it with a broad vision.     

From Togetherness to Equal Partnership in Role Play

In the day care centre, already at the transition stage to role play children show different kinds of participation. They observe each other's play, share goal orientation and directly tutor each other. The play process is materially supported and often initiated by educators. However, children also need to acquire the power to act autonomously in role play.

The different kinds of participation in young children's play, as well as the appearance and development of basic features of joint role play were examined in three games of a two-year-old girl, Katju, in her day care group. The games are examples of ten play sessions she was involved in. These data were collected by means of reactive participant observation and analyzed by using interpretive methods.

It turned out that Katju proceeded from a feeling of togetherness in a shared space, through parallel and successive play actions to reciprocity and equal exchange of play actions. Moreover, the three educators contributed to this process in different ways.

The findings may be of interest in discussions about play in early education practices, in particular with regard to the development of autonomy, social abilities and partnership in sociocultural activities.     

The “syndrome of the post-premature child”: a study of its significance -- Part I

Prematurity has the greatest influence upon frequency and degree of mechanical disturbances uncovered by the Test of Imitation of Gestures. The authors look for the significance of this syndrome at various levels:

1. Possible organic damage to the central nervous system structures, through the tonic and motor disturbances checked out by the neurological examination.
2. In the disturbances of the early development of posturomotor abilities.
3. Deviant and delayed development of the cognitive factors (spatial and temporal structuring).
4. Emotional and relationship development.

The investigations were carried out on a sample group of prematurely born children and a control group group of children born at term.

After observing certain behavior disorders which occur among normal children -- mild disorders which become less obvious with age -- the authors show that frequent and gross disturbances which appear in the first months of life and persist beyond the age of 6 years distinguish the premature child. In this same group, however, delays in mental development noted early in life often disappear entirely by the age of 4 years, even among children who were born very prematurely.

The authors then isolated the most typical disturbances found among the premature children, with stress on factors of pathology, maturation, adjustment, and environment.

The authors study the relationship between the disturbances described above and the various aspects of the neurological examinations which enable them to objectify the dynamic factors of the body adjustment to the external world and to other people. The hypothesis that a fundamental relationship exists between disturbances of adjustment and the genesis of the “post-premature child syndrome”, develops from the comparison between the psychological and neurological data in their longitudinal evolution.

Commenting on the relevance of these findings for the care of premature children, the authors stress the value of motor training and remedial education for overcoming the disturbances of spatial structuration and body schema.     

Ethical and practical considerations in palliative child care and the support needs of parents and siblings

Death is one of the few certainties in life and yet it is the one event that most people avoid contemplating until forced to do so. When considering death and dying it is assumed by most to occur in old age and in hospital. The death of a child is a devastating loss which can cause the most distressing and long lasting grief (Davey, 1995). According to “Childhood cancer UK” the number of children developing cancer in the United Kingdom has remained constant over the past 30 years (about 1300 new cases each year), with only two-thirds of children with the disease being treated successfully. In Britain 32 per cent of cancer deaths occur at home (Bean, 1994) however only a small proportion of these will be children. Despite the deaths of children at home being a statistically small group it must not be ignored due to the great emotional impact it has on the individual, family, health workers and often local community.

The changing status of children in the UK means that health care professionals must uphold childrens' rights whilst working in partnership with parents. A balance must be found between the traditional protectionist and paternalistic attitude of care and the liberationist approach. This can only be achieved through communication and collaboration between families and members of the multi-disciplinary team allowing the promotion of constructive problem solving

The key aim of palliative care is to give the child as good a quality of life as possible in the time remaining with freedom from distressing symptoms including pain. Every health professional working with a dying child who has pain should give consideration to the complexity of pain, it's unique and diverse effects and engage the entire family and health care team in planning interventions and providing support to the child and to each family member (Graner, 1976).

Siblings, parents and health professionals may be profoundly affected by the experience of the death of the child, therefore, each multi-disciplinary team must develop formal coping strategies to deal with the possible psychological disturbance and to facilitate adjustment after the death of the child.

Martinson, writes of her greatest encouragement which came from the parent of a dying child;

“No matter if it culminates a full life or a life shortened much too soon, does death have to be terrorising? There are many to rejoice and aid in the event of birth, as with the patient that can be helped, but for those going through the frustration of 'not getting better' when science and the masses, sometimes even family and friends who can no longer face them, have deserted, could there be a greater challenge or more considerable need for help?”

(1976, p. 13)

This is a powerful message for health professionals caring for children in the end stages of a terminal illness. It is at this time that the family and dying child are in most need of the consistent, expert and humane relationships provided by the caring professions. The challenges are immense but great reward lies in the privilege of being intimately involved in this final rite of passage through life.     

Characteristics of successful directors of for-profit child care centers

The need for quality child care is a national concern of increasing interest to parents, child care providers, employers, and policy-makers in the United States. One of the newest entries in child care options available for consumers is for-profit daycare chains. As for-profit chains increase in both number and size, they will receive increased research attention. Few studies have examined for-profit centers in general or the background characteristics of their directors specifically.

The purpose of this research was to develop a profile of directors of for-profit child care centers and to investigate whether certain background variables, such as level of education, differentiated “successful” from “unsuccessful” directors. Data were collected on 362 child care directors employed during a three-year period with a nation-wide daycare chain in the United States.     

Integration: Quality in care and education for the young disabled child

The presentation aims to examine the criteria of quality for care and education programmes for young disabled children in integrated early childhood settings. The conceptual and practical issues which influence quality programmes will be discussed with particular reference to the Integration Programmes operated throughout South Australia in early childhood centres.

The Integration Programmes, developed to enable and support the integrated or normalised development of young children has as its specific 'target' group individual children who are 'too delayed or disabled' to be able to fully participate or participate without direct assistance in community based early childhood programmes. Some of these children are extremely disabled and others' handicapping conditions are exacerbated by severe lack of other available community resources, isolation and other factors.

Integration is more than 'being there'—it is a complex process based upon the recognition of human value and human rights. For greater insight into the Integration Programmes an appraisal of the following aspects will be provided.

• the principles of integration

• the goals of integration

• the dimensions of integration.

The dimensions of integration will be placed in relation to the indicators of quality in early childhood programmes. The juxtaposing of these parameters of quality will lead to the emergence of guidelines for practical goalsetting and evaluation hallmarks of excellence in integration.     

Who cares?—Supporting parents in the care of children in Hong Kong

The paper addresses the following questions: Why are children placed in residential care? What problems do the parents have in caring for their children at home? What services have been used by the parents in seeking solutions to these problems? Are parents' personal resources so inadequate that the risk of removing a child into care must be taken?

The study involved a sampling of the parents of children who were placed in residential care facilities. The findings indicated that most children were placed in residential care because the parents lacked the tangible resources necessary for them to bring up the children themselves. The findings challenge the simplistic assumption that only children who are orphaned or of irresponsible parents are placed in residential care, and prompt social workers to reflect on the practical means to support parents in the care of children in Hong Kong.     

Maternal Stressors, Maternal Wellbeing and Children's Wellbeing in the Context of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

The purpose of the present study was to examine the level of maternal stressors associated with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA) and to explore the relationship between maternal wellbeing and children's wellbeing in the context of JIA.

The sample (n=60) comprised 30 children with JIA and their mothers. Children and mothers completed self-administered questionnaires independently in outpatient clinics.

Mothers had a mean age of 37.73 (SD=5.50), 73% were married, all were White/European. Child participants (20 female and 10 male) had a mean age of 11.46 (SD=2.93), 61% had oligoarticular idiopathic arthritis, 26% had polyarticular juvenile arthritis and 13% systemic onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Compared to normative data, mothers were at risk of anxious and depressed mood, respectively. The highest rated stressors concerned the side effects of medication, the child's future and becoming over-protective of the child. There was a robust association between maternal wellbeing and children's physical functioning that was partially mediated by maternal self-efficacy. In contrast, maternal wellbeing appeared to be independent of children's ratings of pain, anxiety, depression and self-esteem.

Maternal stress regarding JIA warrants further investigation, particularly in terms of mother's concern about children's physical functioning, the side effects of medication, visibility of the child's condition, and becoming over-protective.     

First evaluation of The Down Lisburn Trust Befriending scheme for young people leaving care

The Down Lisburn Trust befriending scheme was initially set up in October 1998, this piece of research was conducted in April 2000 and is the first evaluation of the scheme.

The purpose of this research study was to evaluate the benefits of the befriending scheme for young people 'looked after' or leaving the care of Down Lisburn Trust. This was achieved by collecting the retrospective views of the young people and their befrienders in relation to how the befriending scheme has benefited them.

As the befriending scheme is a relatively new project, the subjects used in the study were from the first intake of participants on the scheme. This comprised of 5 young people and 6 befrienders. In order to obtain the relevant information, questionnaires were devised for the young people and the befrienders.

The findings of this research study indicated that the befriending scheme benefits those young people in care and leaving care, by providing them with someone to talk to and help them pursue their interests. Also it has ensured there was someone to support them through difficult familial relationships, life in care and/or life after care. The findings also highlighted the need for clearer procedures and follow up in relation to the ending of befriending relationships to ensure that this already vulnerable group of young people are not damaged further.

The findings of this study agree with the findings of other research studies dating from the early 1980's, regarding the plight of young people in care and leaving care.

The Adolescence Team was established in 1990/91 and provides an integrated, specialised service to young people aged between 14 and 21 years old living within the Down Lisburn Trust area. It also provides a supported continuum of care, which enables young people who have been or are in care to live independently and safely in the community. It aims to do so by providing the following services; individual counselling, family work, assessment, mediation/negotiation, preparation for leaving care, aftercare support, group work, and child protection investigations. The following is an overview of the first evaluation of the scheme.     

Day Care Quality and Child Development in Singapore

This paper reports the findings of an investigation into the effects of the day care environment on language development in 122 pre-school children in Singapore. This study examined child progress in which pre- and post assessment scores and the interactive relationship between day care and family environments were taken into account.

Characteristics of 16 day care centres were assessed by the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale, ECERS (Harms & Clifford, 1980). This rating scale was validated against the views of early childhood experts in Singapore. Observer reliability was also obtained before assessing the centres.

Day care effects were investigated by assessing children at two time points. A pretest was conducted at the beginning of the year and a post-test administered towards the end of the year. The findings of this study indicated that the quality of day care centres as measured by the total score and specific subscales of the ECERS were related to some aspects of language development in children.