Long-term complications of decompressive craniectomy for head injury

There is currently much interest in the use of decompressive craniectomy for intracranial hypertension. Though technically straightforward, the procedure is not without significant complications. A retrospective analysis was undertaken of 164 patients who had had a decompressive craniectomy for severe head injury in the years 2004 to 2009 at the two major hospitals in Western Australia. Eighty-six patients had a bifrontal decompression and seventy-eight had a unilateral decompression. Two patients died due to post-operative care issues. Complications attributable to the decompressive surgery were: herniation of the cortex through the bone defect (42 patients, 25.6%), subdural effusion (81 patients, 49.4%), seizures (36 patients, 22%), hydrocephalus (23 patients, 14%), and syndrome of the trephined (2 patients, 1.2%). Complications attributable to the subsequent cranioplasty included: sudden death due to massive cerebral swelling in 3 patients (2.2%), infection requiring removal of the bone flap in 16 patients (11.6%), and bone flap resorption requiring augmentation in 10 patients (7.2%). After excluding simple complications such as subdural effusion and brain herniation through the skull defect and some patients who died as a direct consequence of traumatic brain or extracranial injury, 81 patients (55.5%) had at least one complication after decompressive craniectomy. The occurrence of at least one complication after decompressive craniectomy was significantly associated with an increased risk of prolonged stay in the hospital or rehabilitation facility (odds ratio 2.54, 95%confidence interval 1.22,5.24, p=0.013), after adjusting for predicted risk of unfavorable outcome.     

去骨瓣减压对外伤性脑血管痉挛状态影响的研究

目的 通过对去骨瓣减压术后患者情况综合研究外伤性脑血管痉挛（CVS）的危险因素. 方法 对本院2010年3月至2011年3月收治的30例幕上急性硬膜外血肿合并外伤性蛛网膜下腔出血的脑疝患者,首先予经颅多普勒超声（TCD）检测,并予脑室穿刺行颅内压动态监测,再行去骨瓣减压术,术后连续7天行TCD及颅内压监测并作相关数据分析. 结果 18例发生CVS（占60％）,脑中线结构钟摆程度≥2cm的CVS发生率显著高于脑中线结构钟摆程度＜2cm;t-SAH积血Hijdra法计算6分以下20例中有9例（45％）、6以上10例中有9例（90％）发生CVS;脑疝至手术处理时间2小时以上3例中有3例（100％）、2小时以下27例中有15例（55.6％）发生CVS;手术进行硬膜下探查19例中有8例（50％）、未探查11例中有10例（90.9％）发生CVS;年龄＞50岁18例中有6例（33.3％）、＜50岁12例（40％）中有12例（100％）发生CVS. 结论 经血肿清除及去骨瓣减压术后的患者所发生的脑血管痉挛情况与患者术前术后脑中线结构钟摆程度、蛛网膜下腔出血量、脑疝至手术处理时间的长短、是否进行硬膜下探查、年龄等情况有关.     

Cranioplasty with autologous cryopreserved bone after decompressive craniectomy. Complications and risk factors for developing surgical site infection

Background

Renewed interest has developed in decompressive craniectomy, and improved survival is shown when this treatment is used after malignant middle cerebral artery infarction. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequency and possible risk factors for developing surgical site infection (SSI) after delayed cranioplasty using autologous, cryopreserved bone.

Methods

This retrospective study included 74 consecutive patients treated with decompressive craniectomy during the time period May 1998 to October 2010 for various non-traumatic conditions causing increased intracranial pressure due to brain swelling. Complications were registered and patient data was analyzed in a search for predictive factors.

Results

Fifty out of the 74 patients (67.6 %) survived and underwent delayed cranioplasty. Of these, 47 were eligible for analysis. Six patients (12.8 %) developed SSI following the replacement of autologous cryopreserved bone, whereas bone resorption occurred in two patients (4.3 %). No factors predicted a statistically significant rate of SSI, however, prolonged procedural time and cardiovascular comorbidity tended to increase the risk of SSI.

Conclusions

SSI and bone flap resorption are the most frequent complications associated with the reimplantation of autologous cryopreserved bone after decompressive craniectomy. Prolonged procedural time and cardiovascular comorbidity tend to increase the risk of SSI.     

Comparison of the effect of decompressive craniectomy on different neurosurgical diseases

Background  Many previous studies have reported that decompressive craniectomy has improved clinical outcomes in patients with intractable increased intracranial pressure (ICP) caused by various neurosurgical diseases. However there is no report that compares the effectiveness of the procedure in the different conditions. The authors performed decompressive craniectomy following a constant surgical indication and compared the clinical outcomes in different neurosurgical diseases. Materials and methods  Seventy five patients who underwent decompressive craniectomy were analysed retrospectively. There were 28 with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), 24 cases with massive intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH), and 23 cases with major infarction (MI). The surgical indications were GCS score less than 8 and/or a midline shift more than 6 mm on CT. The clinical outcomes were assessed on the basis of mortality and Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) scores. The changes of ventricular pressure related to the surgical intervention were also compared between the different disease groups. Findings  Clinical outcomes were evaluated 6 months after decompressive craniectomy. The mortality was 21.4% in patients with TBI, 25% in those with ICH and 60.9% in MI. A favourable outcome, i.e. GOS 4–5 (moderate disability or better) was observed in 16 (57.1%) patients with TBI, 12 (50%) with ICH and 7 (30.4%) with MI. The change of ventricular pressure after craniectomy and was 53.2 (reductions of 17.4%) and further reduced by 14.9% (with dural opening) and (24.8%) after returning to its recovery room, regardless of the diseases group. Conclusions  According to the mortality and GOS scores, decompressive craniectomy with dural expansion was found to be more effective in patients with ICH or TBI than in the MI group. However, the ventricular pressure change during the decompressive craniectomy was similar in the different disease groups. The authors thought that decompressive craniectomy should be performed earlier for the major infarction patients.     

大骨瓣减压开颅术后神经元细胞凋亡的实验研究

<正>标准大骨瓣减压术在重型颅脑损伤救治中扮演着重要作用,广泛地应用于临床,它能充分暴露受损部位、减压充分[1],但同时大骨瓣减压术后恢复期部分病人疗效欠佳引起临床的重视,不同程度出现颅骨缺损综合征,表现为头痛、怕声响、注意力不     

Delayed paradoxical herniation after a decompressive craniectomy: case report

BACKGROUND: Paradoxical herniation can occur as a complication of lumbar puncture in patients who had a decompressive craniectomy. The supposed mechanism is the development of a negative pressure gradient that allows the brain to shift toward the infratentorial space with subsequent herniation. Trendelenburg position plus early cranioplasty has been the suggested treatment to eliminate the gradient. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 53-year-old woman had a decompressive hemicraniectomy for SAH-related swelling. A lumbar puncture was performed on postoperative day 5 to rule out infection. She remained neurologically stable until 6 weeks later, when she deteriorated because of a paradoxical herniation. Head positioning and cranioplasty were only temporarily helpful. She developed a second episode of decline a few days later due to an extraaxial CSF collection. A lumbar blood patch plus drainage of the collection successfully allowed full neurologic recovery. CONCLUSIONS: Cranioplasty and head positioning alone might not be sufficient to eliminate the negative pressure gradient. A blood patch should be part of the management of paradoxical herniation.     

Functional recovery after decompressive craniectomy for cerebral infarction

There is continuing controversy about the benefits of decompressive craniectomy in the treatment of lesions causing increased intracranial pressure (ICP) and brain edema. Laboratory work has shown a decrease in ICP after craniectomy, but also a paradoxical enhancement in the formation of underlying cerebral edema, which may act to the detriment of the patient. Since Rengachary et al. advocated craniectomy for massive cerebral infarction and reported their group of three patients, we have managed five patients with acute supratentorial cerebral infarction who progressed to uncal herniation and impending death from raised ICP and brain stem compression. All were treated with frontotemporal craniectomy after conventional medical therapy failed to achieve a response. All patients survived and are walking, despite a paresis appropriate to their original stroke. Two have returned to work. Good results with supratentorial craniectomy after infarction show that this procedure is life-saving and can also give acceptable functional recovery.     

Outcome after decompressive craniectomy in patients with severe ischemic stroke

Summary Decompressive craniectomy after space occupying infarction of the middle cerebral artery (MCA) tends to decrease mortality and increase functional outcome. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate mortality rates and functional outcome in our centre and to identify predictors of prognosis. The charts of 30 consecutive patients (6 women, 24 men, mean age 59.3 ± 11.0 years) who underwent craniectomy after space occupying MCA-infarction from 1996 to 2002 were analyzed. Functional outcome was assessed by semistructured telephone interview as Barthel-Index, modifed Rankin scale and extended Barthel-Index. Five patients (mean age 67.2 ± 6.1 years) died within 5.2 ± 2.4 days (range 2–8 days) after the first symptoms due to herniation. Nine patients (mean age 63.1 ± 7.1 years) died 141.0 ± 92.5 days (range 40–343) after stroke onset due to internal complications. 16 patients survived (mean surviving time 2.1 ± 1.5 years, mean age 54.1 ± 11.4 years). Mortality was related to age and the number of risk factors/comorbidity, and functional outcome was dependent on the number of risk factors/comorbidity. Our small observational, retrospective study suggests that hemicraniectomy in patients with space occupying MCA- infarction decreases mortality rate and increases functional outcome. Further randomized trials may prove useful to better define the indications, timing and prognosis for this procedure.     

Histopathology of subcutaneously preserved autologous bone flap after decompressive craniectomy: a prospective study

Background

Limited reports are available regarding the viability of subcutaneously preserved autologous bone flaps after decompressive craniectomy. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the histopathological changes in these autologous bone flaps.

Methods

Between January 2011 and July 2012, 50 patients were prospectively studied at the time of cranioplasty. Bone flap retrieved from the abdominal wall was subjected to histopathological examination to look for mononuclear cell infiltration into the Haversian system, presence of osteocytes, osteoblastic activity, angiogenesis and new bone formation. Microbiological culture of bone specimens was also done.

Results

Of the 50 patients, there were 40 cases of trauma, 6 of aneurysmal bleed, 2 of tumor, and a single case of intracerebral hemorrhage and middle cerebral artery infarct, respectively. Mean age of the patients was 35.8 years (range, 10–64 years). Histopathological examination revealed the presence of osteocytes in 86 %, which indicates the viability of bone flaps. Osteoblastic activity was noted in 38 % and angiogenesis in 14 % of bone flaps, respectively. New bone formation was found in 6 %, and all had underlying osteoblastic activity. No significant correlation was found between the presence of osteocytes, osteoblasts, angiogenesis and duration of preservation of bone flaps. Acinetobacter species were cultured in a single patient. However, there was no evidence of clinical infection.

Conclusions

Subcutaneously preserved bone flap in the anterior abdominal wall remains viable and retains its osteogenic potential, and it is a simple, cost-effective option for storage of bone flaps during decompressive craniotomy. It has a negligible infection rate.     

去大骨瓣减压术后反常性脑疝的治疗经验

目的探讨去大骨瓣减压手术后并发症反常性脑疝的治疗方法。方法对16例于2015年1月至2017年1月期间行去大骨瓣减压术后出现反常性脑疝并发症患者的临床治疗资料进行回顾性分析,探讨体位调节、脑脊液容量补充以及颅骨修补等治疗方法下患者的治疗效果。结果 16例患者中,有3例患者给予鞘内注射生理盐水之后在较短的时间内得到显著改善,其余13例患者均得到阶段性的改善;5例患者在接受颅骨修补手术之后,其脑神经的功能得到明显恢复,脑疝症状也得到较好的控制。其余11例未进行颅骨修补患者的部分脑神经功能得到恢复。结论及时适当的体位调节、合理为患者进行脑脊液容量的补充以及及时进行颅骨修补是反常性脑疝的较为有效的治疗方式。