Food intake and high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels changes during ramadan fasting in healthy young subjects

During the holy month of Ramadan, it is obligatory for all adult healthy Muslims to abstain from food, drink and smoking each day from dawn to sunset. The aims of our study were to evaluate the effects of Ramadan fasting on plasma lipids, lipoproteins and the change of food consumption in healthy subjects. Thirty young healthy and normal weighted adults (9 males and 21 females) were evaluated during three periods: 3 weeks before Ramadan (T0); the 4th week of Ramadan (T1) and 3 weeks after the end of Ramadan (T2). Main Clinical and biological parameters investigated were: body weight, blood glucose, plasma triglycerides (TG), plasma total cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) and. low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) Body weight, and blood glucose were unchanged. There was a significant increase of the mean daily caloric intake, the lipids intake particularly mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids (p < 0.001) and cholesterol intake (p < 0.001) during Ramadan with a decrease of the meal frequency. There was also a significant increase of plasma total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol. The most striking finding was a significant increase in the HDL-Cholesterol during Ramadan +20% (p < 0.02). This increase was lost after Ramadan. Fasting Ramadan affects beneficially serum lipoprotein metabolism in young adult healthy subjects with an increase of HDL-cholesterol.     

Serum leptin and insulin levels during chronic diurnal fasting

Ramadan fasting is a unique model that is associated with restriction of the timing of food and fluid intake food from dawn to sunset and reduction in meal frequency and sleep duration. Leptin levels are thought to play a role in long-term regulation of caloric intake and fat deposition. However, the long-term changes in leptin levels during this pattern of fasting are not known. The study was conducted on lean (N=6, BMI=22.5+/-0.4) and obese (N=18, BMI=33.1+/-1.0) healthy female volunteers. Fasting serum levels of leptin, insulin and glucose were estimated at baseline (day 1), days 14 and 28 of the month of Ramadan and 2 weeks after Ramadan. Baseline serum levels of leptin were significantly higher in obese (13.5+/-1.96 microg/L,P<0.05) compared with lean subjects (9.60+/-0.80 microg/L) and correlated positively with body fat (r=0.82, P=0.0004). Serum leptin levels exhibited a significant and comparable increase by 39% and 37% throughout the month in lean and obese subjects, respectively. In addition, a significant correlation (r=0.52, P=0.003) was found between changes in serum leptin and serum insulin levels. We conclude that chronic diurnal fasting is associated with significant elevations in serum leptin. These elevations appear to be mediated by changes in serum levels of insulin. These data support the role of insulin in the long-term regulation of leptin secretion during chronic diurnal fasting followed by nocturnal eating during the month of Ramadan.     

Effects of Ramadan fasting on the health of Muslims

The fasting month of Ramadan is the ninth lunar month of the Islamic calendar. It is the most important month for Muslims because in which the Qur'an was revealed, and they abstain from food and drink from dawn to sunset to express their gratitude to God. Eating and drinking is permitted only at night, and Muslims typically eat two meals each day, after sunset and just before dawn. People tend to stay up late watching TV with the family, praying or reading the Qur'an. Ramadan teaches Muslims self-restraint and reminds them of the feelings of the impoverished. On the other hand, the biological effects of changes in lifestyle during Ramadan may also be expected. Some studies have reported substantial weight loss, signs of dehydration, raised serum concentrations of uric acid and cholesterol, etc. during Ramadan. However, these changes are unlikely to have much effect on healthy individuals, because generations of Muslims have undertaken fasting year after year. In conclusion, the observance of the Ramadan fast may produce some ill-effects in patients with some disease, e.g. hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, hyperuricaemia, hyperglycaemia, and heart, liver and kidney disease.     

Changes in blood urea and glucose and their association with energy-containing nutrients in men on hypocaloric diets during Ramadan fasting

In Islamic fasting, participants abstain from food and water between dawn and sunset. This study was conducted to determine the changes in blood urea and glucose and their associations with energy-containing nutrients in men during the Islamic fasting month of Ramadan. Sixteen healthy male college students consumed a high-carbohydrate diet for 2 wk followed by a high-fat diet for the next 2 wk. Fasting blood samples were taken on day 0 (base line), 14, and 28, and analyzed for urea and glucose. At the end of the fasting period the blood urea level increased significantly (p less than 0.05) and the glucose level decreased. At day 14, blood urea was negatively correlated to sucrose intake (p less than 0.01) and at day 28, the relationship between blood glucose and energy intake was negative (p less than 0.02). The findings suggest possible use of a Ramadan fasting model for studies related to energy metabolism and regulation of energy intake.     

Energy density at a buffet-style lunch differs for adolescents born at high and low risk of obesity

The energy density (ED; kcal/g) of foods, when manipulated in the laboratory, affects short-term energy intake. The aim of this study was to examine if, when given a choice, dietary ED (foods only) and energy intake (expressed as a percentage of subjects' estimated daily energy requirement; EER) at a self-selected, single meal differ for teens born with a different familial predisposition to obesity and as a function of their sex. Subjects (13 males, 17 females) were 12 years of age and born at high risk (HR; n = 15) or low risk (LR; n = 15) for obesity based on maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI; kg/m²). The buffet meal, served for lunch and consumed ad libitum, consisted of a variety of foods and beverages with a range in ED. HR subjects consumed a more energy-dense meal (foods only) than LR subjects (1.84 vs. 1.42 kcal/g; P = 0.02) and males consumed a more energy-dense meal than females (1.83 vs. 1.43 kcal/g; P = 0.03). Total energy intake, when expressed as a percentage of subjects' daily EER, did not differ between HR and LR subjects (42% vs. 33%; P = 0.16). Males, compared to females, consumed ~ 59% more energy from foods and beverages during the meal (46 vs. 29%; P = 0.008). During a single multi-item lunch meal, teens with a familial predisposition to obesity and males, independent of their obesity risk status, self-selected a more energy-dense meal. Familial risk for obesity, through either genetic or environmental pathways, may facilitate a more energy-dense diet.     

Effects of fasting in Ramadan on tropical Asiatic Moslems

1. Anthropometric variables, resting heart rate and respiratory gas exchange were measured in twelve male and nine female Asiatic adult Moslems during the month of Ramadan, the week before and the month after Ramadan. 2. Energy intakes were estimated from dietary recall during fasting and non-fasting conditions. 3. Both male and female subjects experienced a decrease in body mass with the reduction in energy intake during fasting. Males experienced a greater reduction than females in resting heart rate; females lost more body-weight and subcutaneous fat than males. 4. Urine output and fluid intake were measured in twelve male subjects for 1 d during each week of fasting and 1 d during the pre-fasting control period. Among the subjects examined, the Ramadan regimen did not result in changes in the pattern of fluid exchange.     

Effect of high- and low-fiber diets on plasma lipids and insulin.

Seven healthy young adults were maintained for two separate 1-week periods on each of two very high-carbohydrate diets, one with low-fiber and one with high-fiber content. In both diets 15% of the calories were from protein, 15% from fat, and 70% were from carbohydrate. The low-fiber diet consisted of milk, glucose, and dextrins in liquid formula form, the high-fiber diet was composed of starchy foods. The crude fiber content of the high- and low-fiber diets was 18.0 and 1.0 g, respectively. The diets were isocaloric and the subjects maintained a stable weight. During the low-fiber diet the fasting triglycerides rose, reaching a peak 45% above base-line in 6 days. During the high-fiber diet the triglycerides fell to a level slightly below base-line. The cholesterol fell 16 and 23% below base-line on the low- and high-fiber diets. The glucose response to test meals representative of each diet was similar. The insulin response to a low-fiber meal was twice as great as that to a high-fiber meal containing an equivalent amount of carbohydrate. The results suggest that carbohydrate-induced hyperlipemia does not occur if the high carbohydrate diet is rich in dietary fiber, and furthermore that the insulin-stimulating potential of foods in a very high-carbohydrate diet is a critical determinant of the magnitude of carbohydrate-induced lipemia.     

Fasting during ramadan: A religious factor as a possible trigger or exacerbator for eating disorders in adolescents

Culture‐based contributors play a role in eating disorders (EDs). Here, we present one such factor that may play a role in triggering ED's in adolescents: Fasting during the holy period of Ramadan. Ramadan is the Islamic month of fasting, in which participating Muslims refrain from eating, drinking, and smoking, which starts from dawn lasting until sunset. For the past 2 years, we have noticed an increase in patients with disordered eating patterns that have applied to Hacettepe University, Division of Adolescent Medicine during or shortly after Ramadan. We document six of these patients, three of which were diagnosed with an ED and three that did not meet full criteria. We argue that the possible effects of a drastic change in ones diet such as that which occurs during Ramadan, play an important role in triggering ED's in adolescents with a predisposition or may exacerbate an eating pathology. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (Int J Eat Disord 2014; 47:905–910)     

Dietary fiber and gender: effect on postprandial lipemia

The ability of guar gum and oat bran to alter postprandial lipemia and lipoprotein composition when added to a test meal (42% total calories as carbohydrate, 16% as protein, and 42% as fat) was examined in six males and six females who consumed both low- (0.4 g) and high- (15.4 g) fiber test meals on separate days. After an overnight fast participants consumed the test meal, and blood samples were obtained hourly for 8 h. Plasma glucose concentrations did not increase markedly after either meal in any of the subjects. In males, postprandial triglyceridemia was unaffected by fiber supplementation. In females, postprandial triglyceridemia was greater for the high- than for the low-fiber meal at 2, 3, and 4 h. After both meals triglyceridemia was higher in males than in females, which may be related to the lower ratio of high-density lipoprotein2 (HDL)2 to HDL3 in males vs females. Fiber supplementation and gender influence postprandial glycemia, lipemia, and lipoprotein composition.     

Isocaloric exchange of dietary starch and sucrose in humans. I. Effects on levels of fasting blood lipids.

For 6 weeks, 10 men and nine women aged 35 to 55 consumed each of two diets in a cross-over design. The diets were comprised of identical natural foods with 30% of the calories as either sucrose or cooked wheat starch. Carbohydrate, fat and protein supplied 43, 42, and 15% of the calories, respectively. Of the calories 10% were eaten at breakfast (7:00 to 8:30 AM) and 90% at dinner (4:30 to 6:30 PM). Initial body weights were essentially maintained. Total serum lipids, triglycerides, and total cholesterol levels were significantly higher when the subjects consumed the sucrose diet than when they consumed the starch diet. Increases associated with the sucrose diet were greatest for triglycerides (33.0%). In a subgroup of nine subjects with triglyceride levels above the normal range, sucrose feeding increased triglyceride levels 45.2%. Triglycerides and pre-beta lipoproteins were significantly higher in males than in females. Pre-beta lipoproteins were 32% higher when the subjects consumed sucrose than when they consumed starch. For alpha and beta lipoproteins, small, nonsignificant increases were associated with sucrose feeding. Serum free fatty acids were not affected by diet. These results indicate that the consumption of sucrose can increase blood lipids that are considered to be risk factors in heart disease and that males and carbohydrate-sensitive individuals may be more susceptible than others to the effects of sucrose.     

Influence of Ramadan-type fasting on enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism and brush border membrane in small intestine and liver of rat used as a model

During Ramadan, Muslims the world over abstain from food and water from dawn to sunset for a month. We hypothesised that this unique model of prolonged intermittent fasting would result in specific intestinal and liver metabolic adaptations and hence alter metabolic activities. The effect of Ramadan-type fasting was studied on enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism and the brush border membrane of intestine and liver from rat used as a model. Rats were fasted (12 h) and then refed (12 h) daily for 30 d, as practised by Muslims during Ramadan. Ramadan-type fasting caused a significant decline in serum glucose, cholesterol and lactate dehydrogenase activity, whereas inorganic phosphate increased but blood urea N was not changed. Fasting resulted in increased activities of intestinal lactate (+34%), isocitrate (+63%), succinate (+83%) and malate (+106%) dehydrogenases, fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (+17%) and glucose-6-phosphatase (+22%). Liver lactate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase activities were also enhanced. However, the activities of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and malic enzyme fell significantly in the intestine but increased in liver. Although the activities of alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and sucrase decreased in mucosal homogenates and brush border membrane, those of liver alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and leucine aminopeptidase significantly increased. These changes were due to a respective decrease and increase of the maximal velocities of the enzyme reactions. Ramadan-type fasting caused similar effects whether the rats fasted with a daytime or night-time feeding schedule. The present results show a tremendous adaptation capacity of both liver and intestinal metabolic activities with Ramadan-type fasting in rats used as a model for Ramadan fasting in people.     

Influence of Ramadan-type fasting on carbohydrate metabolism, brush border membrane enzymes and phosphate transport in rat kidney used as a model

Ramadan fasting is a unique model of fasting in which Muslims the world over abstain from food and water from dawn to sunset for 1 month. We hypothesized that this model of prolonged intermittent fasting would result in specific adaptive alterations in rat kidney to keep a positive balance of metabolites and inorganic phosphate (Pi). The effect of Ramadan-type fasting was studied on enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism and brush border membrane (BBM) and BBM uptake of 32Pi in different renal tissue zones in the rat model. Rats were fasted (12 h) and then re-fed (12 h) daily for 30 d similar to human Ramadan fasting. Ramadan-type fasting resulted in increased serum Pi and phospholipids, whereas Pi clearance decreased. Serum creatinine and its clearance were not affected. Fasting caused a significant decrease in the activities of lactate and malate dehydrogenases, glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, both in the renal cortex and medulla. However, the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase profoundly increased but that of malic enzyme decreased. The activities of alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase in BBM decreased, whereas transport of 32Pi significantly increased. The decrease in enzyme activities and increase in 32Pi transport were due to alterations of both maximal velocities and relative affinities. The results indicate that Ramadan-type fasting caused specific metabolic alterations with enhanced Pi conservation in different kidney tissues in a rat model used for Ramadan fasting in man.     

Effects on health of fluid restriction during fasting in Ramadan

During the 9th month (Ramadan) of the Islamic calendar (Hijra) many millions of adult Muslims all over the world fast during the daylight hours. Since Hijra is a lunar calendar, Ramadan occurs at different times in the seasonal year over a 33-year cycle. Fasting during Ramadan is partial because the abstention from food, fluid, tobacco and caffeine is from sunrise to sunset. Several categories of people are exempt or can postpone the Ramadan fast. The effect on health and well being of the month-long intermittent fast and fluid restriction has been studied in various potentially vulnerable groups in addition to normal healthy individuals in many countries. The majority of the studies have found significant metabolic changes, but few health problems arising from the fast. A reduction in drug compliance was an inherent negative aspect of the fast. Common findings of the studies reviewed were increased irritability and incidences of headaches with sleep deprivation and lassitude prevalent. A small body mass loss is a frequent, but not universal, outcome of Ramadan. During the daylight hours of Ramadan fasting, practising Muslims are undoubtedly dehydrating, but it is not clear whether they are chronically hypohydrated during the month of Ramadan. No detrimental effects on health have as yet been directly attributed to negative water balance at the levels that may be produced during Ramadan.     

A study of consumers' perceptions and prediction of consumption patterns for generic health functional foods

The Korea Food and Drug Administration (KFDA) revised the Health Functional Food Act in 2008 and extended the form of health functional foods to general food types. Therefore, this study was performed to investigate consumers'' perceptions of the expanded form of health functional food and to predict consumption patterns. For this study, 1,006 male and female adults aged 19 years and older were selected nationwide by multi-stage stratified random sampling and were surveyed in 1:1 interviews. The questionnaire survey was conducted by Korea Gallup. The subjects consisted of 497 (49.4%) males and 509 (50.6%) females. About 57.9% of the subjects recognized the KFDA''s permission procedures for health functional foods. Regarding the health functional foods that the subjects had consumed, red ginseng products were the highest (45.3%), followed by nutritional supplements (34.9%), ginseng products (27.9%), lactobacillus-containing products (21.0%), aloe products (20.3%), and Japanese apricot extract products (18.4%). Opinions on expanding the form of health functional foods to general food types scored 4.7 points on a 7-point scale, showing positive responses. In terms of the effects of medicine-type health functional foods versus generic health functional foods, the highest response was ''same effects if the same ingredients are contained'' at a rate of 34.7%. For intake frequency by food type, the response of ''daily consistent intake'' was 31.7% for capsules, tablets, and pills, and 21.7% for extracts. For general food types, ''daily consistent intake'' was 44.5% for rice and 22.8% for beverages, which were higher rates than those for medicine types. From the above results, consumers had positive opinions of the expansion of health functional foods to generic forms but are not expected to maintain accurate intake frequencies or amounts. Thus, continuous promotion and education are needed for proper intake of generic health functional foods.     

Short-term diets enriched in stearic or palmitic acids do not alter plasma lipids,platelet aggregation or platelet activation status

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether healthy males who consumed increased amounts of dietary stearic acid compared with increased dietary palmitic acid through the consumption of commercially available foods, exhibited any changes in plasma lipids, platelet aggregation or platelet activation status. DESIGN: A randomised cross-over dietary intervention. SUBJECTS AND INTERVENTIONS: Nine free-living healthy males consumed two experimental diets (stearic acid enriched, diet S, and palmitic acid enriched, diet P) for 3 weeks in a randomised cross-over design separated by a 3 week washout phase. The diets consisted of approximately 30% of energy as fat (30% of which was derived from the treatment diets) providing approximately 13 g/day as stearic acid and 17 g/day as palmitic acid on diet S and approximately 7 g/day as stearic acid and 22 g/day as palmitic acid on diet P. The dietary ratio of stearic to palmitic acids was 0.76 on diet S compared with 0.31 on diet P. Blood samples were collected on days 0 and 21 of each dietary period. RESULTS: LDL cholesterol levels and platelet aggregation response to the agonist ADP were significantly decreased (P<0.025) in subjects on diet S compared with day 0. Apart from that, there were no significant changes in plasma lipids, platelet aggregation, mean platelet volume and platelet reactivity between diets. There were no significant changes in stearic or palmitic acid levels in plasma phospholipid or triacylglycerol. There was a significant difference in palmitic acid levels in platelet phospholipids between the two diets. CONCLUSIONS: Use of commonly available foods led to a 27% increase in stearic acid (diet S) and a 19% increase in palmitic acid (diet P), on diets S and P respectively, and no significant differences between the two diets in plasma lipoprotein concentrations, platelet aggregation or platelet activation status.     

Increasing the portion size of a sandwich increases energy intake

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the effect on energy intake of increasing the portion size of a food served as a discrete unit. DESIGN: A within-subject design with repeated measures was used. SUBJECTS/SETTING: The sample comprised 75 young adults (37 females and 38 males) from a university community. INTERVENTION: Individuals ate lunch in the lab once a week for 4 weeks. Each week, they were served one of four sizes of a deli-style sandwich (6, 8, 10, or 12 inches), of which they could eat as much as they wanted. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Energy intakes were determined for each meal, as were ratings of hunger and satiety before and after each meal. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: A linear mixed model with repeated measures was used. The influence of subject characteristics was examined using analysis of covariance. RESULTS: The portion size of the sandwich significantly influenced lunch intake for both males and females (P<.0001). The majority of individuals consumed the entire 6-inch sandwich. When served the 12-inch sandwich, compared with the 8-inch sandwich, females consumed 12% more energy (74 kcal) and males consumed 23% more energy (186 kcal). Despite these differences, ratings of hunger and fullness were not significantly different after eating the 12-inch and 8-inch sandwiches. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that increasing the portion size of a food served as a discrete unit leads to increased energy intake at a single meal without differentially influencing ratings of hunger and satiety. Dietitians should educate their clients about strategies to moderate the effect on intake of increased portions of high-calorie foods.     

Isocaloric exchange of dietary starch and sucrose in humans. II. Effect on fasting blood insulin, glucose, and glucagon and on insulin and glucose response to a sucrose load.

Ten men and nine women ages 35 to 55 consumed two diets for 6 weeks each in a cross-over design. The diets were composed of identical natural foods and 30% of the calories as either sucrose or wheat starch. Carbohydrate, fat, and protein supplied 43, 42, and 15% of the calories, respectively. Of the calories 10% was eaten at breakfast (7:00 to 8:30 AM) and 90% at dinner (4:30 to 6:30 PM). Inital body weights were essentially maintained. Fasting serum insulin and glucose levels were significantly higher with the sucrose than with the starch diet. The insulin response and the insulin:glucose ratios after a sucrose load (2 g/kg body weight) were greater after the subjects consumed the sucrose diet. Sucrose feeding produced increases in fasting serum insulin, the insulin:glucose ratio and the insulin response to a sucrose load that were of greater magnitude in a subgroup of nine subjects classified as potentially carbohydrate-sensitive than in normal subjects. Glucose response to a sucrose load and fasting serum glucagon did not differ significantly with diet. Fasting insulin and glucose showed significant increases as a function of time on diet. These results indicate that sucrose feeding produces undersirable changes in several of the parameters associated with glucose tolerance.     

Food Preferences, Beliefs, and Practices of Southeast Asian Refugee Adolescents

Food preferences, beliefs, and practices were assessed among 207 Southeast Asian refugee high school students, all of whom had been in the U.S. five years or less. Questionnaires typed both in English as well as their native language of either Cambodian, Vietnamese, or Hmong, were administered to all students in a classroom setting. Results indicated Southeast Asian refugee youth have maintained strong ties to their native foods and traditional meal patterns. In the U.S., as in Southeast Asia, rice remains the staple food in their diet. High status foods in Southeast Asia such as fruits, meats, and soft drinks remain highly preferred in the U.S. While milk is well-liked, cheese remains a strongly disliked food item. Fruits and vegetables are frequently consumed. Nutritionally weak American foods such as candy bars, cake, and potato chips are not consumed frequently. However, soft drinks are consumed daily by almost one-third of the students. Breakfast was missed by almost 60% of females and 37% of males. Forty-five percent of the youth reported they had primary responsibility for evening meal preparation.     

Fecal butyrate levels vary widely among individuals but are usually increased by a diet high in resistant starch

Butyrate and other SCFA produced by bacterial fermentation of resistant starch (RS) or nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) promote human colonic health. To examine variation in fecal variables, especially butyrate, among individuals and the response to these fibers, a randomized cross-over study was conducted that compared the effects of foods supplying 25 g of NSP or 25 g of NSP plus 22 g of RS/d over 4 wk in 46 healthy adults (16 males, 30 females; age 31-66 y). Fecal SCFA levels varied widely among participants at entry (butyrate concentrations: 3.5-32.6 mmol/kg; butyrate excretions: 0.3-18.2 mmol/48 h). BMI explained 27% of inter-individual butyrate variation, whereas protein, starch, carbohydrate, fiber, and fat intake explained up to 16, 6, 2, 4, and 2% of butyrate variation, respectively. Overall, acetate, butyrate, and total SCFA concentrations were higher when participants consumed RS compared with entry and NSP diets, but individual responses varied. Individual and total fecal SCFA excretion, weight, and moisture were higher than those for habitual diets when either fiber diet was consumed. SCFA concentrations (except butyrate) and excretions were higher for males than for females. Butyrate levels increased in response to RS in most individuals but often decreased when entry levels were high. Fecal butyrate and ammonia excretions were positively associated ((2) = 0.76; P < 0.001). In conclusion, fecal butyrate levels vary widely among individuals but consuming a diet high in RS usually increases levels and may help maintain colorectal health.     

Food habits of French Canadians in Montreal,Quebec.

Since the 1960's, marked sociocultural and economic changes have affected lifestyle, religious practices, and family structure among French Canadians in Quebec. Recent nutritional assessment was unavailable, despite indications of change.

A survey was carried out in 1988 in a representative sample living in Greater Montreal, to obtain current data on food habits, nutrient intakes and sociodemographic factors, using interviewer-administered questionnaires and seven-day food records.

Some 845 families (1450 individuals from different age groups) were studied in two phases: summer/fall and winter/spring. Mean household size in the study population was 2.7. Among adults, extremes of educational level were observed, with 33% having elementary school only and 28% having completed university. On average, each household spent $CAN 89.90 a week for food, $26.00 for tobacco, and $13.50 for alcohol. Breakfast was eaten regularly by 90% of subjects while 96% ate lunch and 99% ate dinner. Morning snacks were consumed by 36% and afternoon snacks were taken by 50%. Milk was consumed with breakfast by 24% of respondents, with lunch by 19%, and with dinner by 24%. On weekdays, 81% of subjects ate their main meals at home, while on weekends this figure was 95%. Time spent for meals varied by meal, and was slightly longer on weekends. Specialty diets, including vegetarianism, were followed by 7% of the study subjects, while 22% adhered to health-related diets.

The food record analyses revealed adequate nutrient intakes overall in relation to the 1990 Canadian Recommended Nutrient Intakes, although further investigation is needed before addressing dietary quality in specific age-sex groups. Protein comprised 16% of energy, fat 38%, and carbohydrates composed 45% or 46% for males and females, respectively. Subsequent analyses will evaluate nutrient intakes in relation to health and sociodemographic indicators in this population.