Agricultural Pesticide Usage and Prioritization in South Korea

This study aims to review agricultural pesticide usage and trends and to identify hazardous pesticides for regulation, in terms of public health, in South Korea. The authors collected data on usage and trends of agricultural pesticides through agriculture-related databases. Criteria from the US Environmental Protection Agency classification for carcinogenicity, World Health Organization classification for acute toxicity, and European Union prioritization list for endocrine-disrupting chemicals were used for the hazard categorization of identified individual active ingredients. Pesticides to be prioritized among all pesticides used in South Korea between 2007 and 2011 were selected by taking into account the volume of usage, toxicity, and epidemiological evidence. Annual agricultural use of pesticides has increased rapidly from the 1970s to 1990s in South Korea, but has declined since 2001. The quantity of pesticides used in 2011 was reported as 19,131 tons, and was comprised of 34.7% insecticides, 28.0% fungicides, and 27.1% herbicides. The 50 pesticides with the greatest volume of usage accounted for 82.6% of the total volume of pesticides used between 2007 and 2011, with the most-used active ingredient being machine oil, followed by mancozeb and then paraquat. Organophosphates were the most used among the top 50 pesticides. A total of 24 pesticides were selected for recommendation of intensive regulation in South Korea. In conclusion, the authors described the usage and trends of overall agricultural pesticides, which would serve as a fundamental step forward in managing pesticide in terms of public health. Intensive efforts are required for the prevention of potential health effects from the 24 identified pesticides.     

Organophosphate pesticide metabolite levels in pre-school children in an agricultural community: within- and between-child variability in a longitudinal study

This study characterized the within- and between-child variability in dimethylthiophosphate (DMTP) levels in the urine of 44 children living in an agricultural community in central Washington State in December 1997 and 1999. The goal of this analysis was to investigate these variability components during periods when organophosphate pesticides were and were not actively applied to orchards in that community. Each child provided between 10 and 26 biweekly urine samples over a 21-month period, and these samples were analyzed for six dialkylphosphate (DAP) metabolites common to organophosphate pesticides, including DMTP. Previous analysis of this dataset found that DAP concentrations were elevated during months when organophosphate pesticides were applied to orchards in this region. The current analysis demonstrates that the within-child component of day-to-day variability was much greater than the between-child component of variability by a factor of 3–7 across the DAP metabolites that were analyzed. Therefore, organophosphate pesticide exposure appeared to vary more than 3 times from day-to-day than from child-to-child. This finding has important implications for epidemiologic and exposure pathways research, since accounting for within-child variability may increase the power of a study and allow for the detection of differences that would not otherwise be possible without an analysis that separates out the within-child variability.     

Practices in pesticide handling and the use of personal protective equipment in Mexican agricultural workers

Practices related to the safe handling of pesticides and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) are largely unknown among agricultural workers in developing countries. The authors obtained information from 99 Mexican agricultural workers (35 women and 64 men) who answered questions on sociodemographic data, agricultural practices, use of pesticides, use of PPE, and risk perception. As expected, men handled pesticides more frequently than women (67% versus 20%). The workers carried out several agricultural tasks, as is customary in the case of fieldworkers who (1) work in small agricultural enterprises; use a great number of pesticide products (59 commercial brands of pesticides, 33 active ingredients, and 20 chemical families); (2) use mostly manual application equipment; (3) have a low rate of correct usage of PPE (2%), which does not vary according to the education level, the time of year, or the risk perception; and (4) have insufficient hygienic practices. In addition, storage of pesticide products and application equipment at home is frequent among this group of workers (42%), and provides a significant source of para-occupational exposure for the workers' families. These results show the need to develop prevention programs to reduce risks posed by pesticides to agricultural workers and their families.     

Monitoring exposure of northern cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis, to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides: enzyme activity, reactivations, and indicators of environmental stress

Northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) frequently use agricultural field edges in northeast Arkansas, USA, and may be at risk of exposure to cholinesterase (ChE)-inhibiting pesticides. We monitored northern cardinal exposure to ChE-inhibiting pesticides by comparing plasma total ChE (TChE) activity to reference-derived benchmarks and TChE reactivations. Total ChE and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were measured for 128 plasma samples from 104 northern cardinals from nine study sites. Of birds sampled from sites treated with ChE-inhibiting pesticides, 4.3% of the samples had TChE activities below the diagnostic threshold (2 standard deviations [SD] below the reference mean) and 8.7% of the samples had TChE reactivations. No difference was found in TChE (p = 0.553) and AChE (p = 0.288) activity between treated and reference sites; however, activity varied among treated sites (p = 0.003). These data do not suggest uniform exposure to individuals, but rather exposure was variable and likely influenced by mitigating factors at individual and site scales. Furthermore, monitoring of TChE reactivation appeared to be a more sensitive indicator of exposure than the diagnostic threshold. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) was greater at agricultural sites than reference sites (p = 0.016), supporting the hypothesis that FA may be useful for assessing a combination of habitat- and contaminant-related environmental stress.     

Agricultural pesticide use and hypospadias in eastern Arkansas

INTRODUCTION: We assessed the relationship between hypospadias and proximity to agricultural pesticide applications using a GIS-based exposure method. METHODS: We obtained information for 354 cases of hypospadias born between 1998 and 2002 in eastern Arkansas; 727 controls were selected from birth certificates. We classified exposure on pounds of pesticides (estimated by crop type) applied or persisting within 500 m of each subject's home during gestational weeks 6 to 16. We restricted our analyses to 38 pesticides with some evidence of reproductive, developmental, estrogenic, and/or antiandrogenic effects. We estimated timing of pesticide applications using crop phenology and published records. RESULTS: Gestational age at birth [odds ratio (OR) = 0.91; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.83-0.99], parity (OR = 0.79; 95% CI, 0.65-0.95), and delaying prenatal care until the third trimester (OR = 4.04; 95% CI, 1.46-11.23) were significantly associated with hypospadias. Risk of hypospadias increased by 8% for every 0.05-pound increase in estimated exposure to diclofop-methyl use (OR = 1.08; 95% CI, 1.01-1.15). Pesticide applications in aggregate (OR = 0.82; 95% CI, 0.70-0.96) and applications of alachlor (OR = 0.56; 95% CI, 0.35-0.89) and permethrin (OR = 0.37; 95% CI, 0.16-0.86) were negatively associated with hypospadias. CONCLUSIONS: Except for diclofop-methyl, we did not find evidence that estimated exposure to pesticides known to have reproductive, developmental, or endocrine-disrupting effects increases risk of hypospadias. Further research on the potential effects of exposure to diclofop-methyl is recommended.     

Historical pesticide exposure in California using pesticide use reports and land-use surveys: an assessment of misclassification error and bias

We used California's Pesticide Use Report (PUR) and land-use survey data to conduct a simulation study evaluating the potential consequences of misclassifying residential exposure from proximity to agricultural pesticide application in health effect studies. We developed a geographic model linking the PUR with crop location data from land-use surveys to assess the impact of exposure misclassification from simpler exposure models based solely on PUR or land-use data. We simulated the random selection of population controls recruited into a hypothetical case-control study within an agricultural region. Using residential parcel data, we derived annual exposure prevalences, sensitivity, and specificity for five pesticides and relied on the PUR plus land-use model as the "gold standard." Based on these estimates, we calculated the attenuation of prespecified true odds ratios (ORs), assuming nondifferential exposure misclassification. True ORs were severely attenuated a) when residential exposure status was based on a larger geographic area yielding higher sensitivity but low specificity for exposure, in contrast to relying on a smaller area and increasing specificity; b) for less frequently applied pesticides; and c) with increasing mobility of residents among the study population. Considerable effect estimate attenuation also occurred when we used residential distance to crops as a proxy for pesticide exposure. Finally, exposure classifications based on annual instead of seasonal summaries of PUR resulted in highly attenuated ORs, especially during seasons when applications of specific pesticides were unlikely to occur. These results underscore the importance of increasing the spatiotemporal resolution of pesticide exposure models to minimize misclassification.     

Determinants of agricultural pesticide concentrations in carpet dust

Background: Residential proximity to agricultural pesticide applications has been used as a surrogate for exposure in epidemiologic studies, although little is known about the relationship with levels of pesticides in homes.Objective: We identified determinants of concentrations of agricultural pesticides in dust.Methods: We collected samples of carpet dust and mapped crops within 1,250 m of 89 residences in California. We measured concentrations of seven pesticides used extensively in agriculture (carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, chlorthal-dimethyl, diazinon, iprodione, phosmet, and simazine). We estimated use of agricultural pesticides near residences from a statewide database alone and by linking the database with crop maps. We calculated the density of pesticide use within 500 and 1,250 m of residences for 180, 365, and 730 days before collection of dust and evaluated relationships between agricultural pesticide use estimates and pesticide concentrations in carpet dust.Results: For five of the seven pesticides evaluated, residences with use of agricultural pesticides within 1,250 m during the previous 365 days had significantly higher concentrations of pesticides than did residences with no nearby use. The highest correlation with concentrations of pesticides was generally for use reported within 1,250 m of the residence and 730 days before sample collection. Regression models that also accounted for occupational and home use of pesticides explained only a modest amount of the variability in pesticide concentrations (4–28%).Conclusions: Agricultural pesticide use near residences was a significant determinant of concentrations of pesticides in carpet dust for five of seven pesticides evaluated.     

Health effects of pesticides in the flower-bulb culture in Holland

In a comprehensive project the health risk for workers using pesticides in the flower-bulb culture was addressed in several studies regarding biological monitoring, occupational hygiene and health effects. With respect to biological monitoring, methods were developed for the analysis of metabolites in urine of captan, pirimicarb, zineb and maneb and the soil fumigant dichloropropene. For dichloropropene in a field study a clear relationship was found between the external personal exposure and the excretion of two metabolites (mercapturic acids) in urine. The application technique distinctly influenced the extent of exposure. For the other substances preliminary measurements were performed in the urine of exposed workers; for captan and pirimicarb the methods are promising for further studies of the uptake of these substances under working conditions. In an occupational hygiene study, the dermal exposure due to different application techniques used in crop protection and bulb disinfection was investigated. This resulted in method specific exposure values (grams/field area of bulbs) that showed large differences between the techniques. These exposure values in combination with information on the type of techniques used, the treated area and the frequency of application were used to calculate a personal exposure index (grams/working life); this is an estimate of the potential (external) exposure of individual workers. In an effect study 137 workers who applied pesticides for more than 10 years (average 20 years) in at least bulb disinfection and crop protection (the most important area's of exposure for the growers) were compared to 73 controls. Tests for autonomic and peripheral nerve functions including the distribution of conduction velocities and refractory periods, were applied as well as computerized neurobehavioral tests and electro-encephalography. Significant effects were found on peripheral nerve function parameters, on measures of attention and perceptual coding and on the amount of beta-activity in the EEG; the data suggest that for the majority of subjects these effects are small. No effects were found on liver and renal function and no difference in the prevalence of symptoms that might be ascribed to the usage of pesticides. In a number of exposed workers a cutaneous allergy to pesticides was found. Based on this study, measures are recommended to diminish effectively the exposure to pesticides in this culture.     

Comparability of data obtained from farmers and surrogate respondents on use of agricultural pesticides

Information from surrogates is increasingly being used in case-control studies to evaluate cancer risks from pesticides; however, little is known about the quality of this type of information. To address this concern, the authors compared interview data collected in 1987 from 95 male Iowa farmers and their wives or other surrogates on the use of specific agricultural pesticides. Agreement between direct and surrogate interviews was excellent (83-100%) for responses to dichotomous (yes/no) questions regarding past agricultural use of specific pesticides. Although there were more discrepancies for detailed questions (e.g., the number of days per year on which each pesticide was handled), responses from spouses appear to be adequate for epidemiologic studies of pesticides and cancer.     

Estimation of long-term exposure to pesticides

Quantifying the exposure of agricultural workers to pesticides is difficult in the face of the heterogeneity of the pesticides used, the variability in methods of application, and the lack of adequate exposure data. This report describes an attempt to estimate long-term dermal and inhalation exposure of bulb farmers by the development of an exposure index. This proposed exposure index consists of generic levels of exposure specific to the method of application, which were derived from databases as well as from field studies. The index is further determined by farm-related parameters such as acreage and number of pesticide applications ascertained from questionnaire responses. A widely used dithiocarbamate mixture served as a marker compound for exposure to other pesticides. Ranking of 127 bulb farmers according to calculated lifetime dermal exposure correlated only moderately to ranking based on duration of exposure, e.g., years of exposure and farm acreage. This finding indicates that the proposed exposure index could provide a useful estimate of long-term exposure to a mixture of pesticides in epidemi-ological investigations.     

Development of a GIS-based indicator for environmental pesticide exposure and its application to a Belgian case-control study on bladder cancer

We developed two indicators to assess the exposure of residents to agricultural pesticide use and applied it in a case-control study on bladder cancer in the province of Limburg, Belgium. The first indicator used a distance-weighted measure of crop area for specified crops (fruit trees, fruit bushes and vegetables). The second indicator used a distance-weighted measure of pesticide use. We used information at three scale levels: (a) information at individual's level, such as distance to crop fields; (b) information at the level of the municipality, such as time-series of crop area; and (c) regional information, such as pesticide use. Pesticide use data were available per group of pesticides (fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, growth regulators and group of other pesticides). Indicators were calculated for each individual in the case-control study. The indicators were calculated per year for a period of 20 years, taking into account address history. Variation of pesticide use and toxicity with time was addressed by a relative risk factor. A very strong correlation was found between the area of fruit trees and bushes and the use of fungicides as well as the use of "other pesticides", indicating that these groups of pesticides are predominantly used in fruit production. The indicator for fruit trees is highly skewed to the right, indicating a high number of subjects with low potential exposure to fruit trees. Pesticide pressure indicators are less skewed as they combine application to multiple crops; the highest skewness is found for fungicides corresponding with the distribution for fruit trees. Statistical analysis revealed no association between the indicators and the incidence of bladder cancer. The results show that, using GIS, it is possible to reconstruct potential environmental pesticide exposure accounting for changes in pesticide use, crop area and residence history. Validation of the method with measured exposure is considered essential in view of its future application in other studies.     

Hexachlorocyclohexane use in the former Soviet Union

Because of the large size of the former Soviet Union (FSU) and the heavy use of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the FSU, usage information regarding OCPs in the FSU is important in compiling global emission inventories and thus in studying the transport of OCPs among different environmental compartments worldwide. The availability of such information is limited. By analyzing the available 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) data in the FSU, this article presents estimates of HCH usage in this region from 1950 to 1990, when HCH was officially banned for agricultural use by the FSU government. The creation of HCH usage inventories for the FSU has paved the way to produce HCH emission inventories for this region. Total HCH usages for agricultural purposes in the FSU from 1950 to 1990 were estimated to be 1,960 kt for technical HCH and 40 kt for lindane. The total usage for the isomers was 270 kt for gamma-HCH, 1,270 kt for alpha-HCH, and 170 kt for beta-HCH. Use of HCH reached a peak in 1965: 130 kt for technical HCH, 2.7 kt for lindane, 18 kt for gamma-HCH, 86 kt for alpha-HCH, and 11 kt for beta-HCH. Gridded usage data sets in the FSU of technical HCH and lindane-and the alpha-HCH, beta-HCH and gamma-HCH isomers-on a 1degree x 1degree longitude and latitude grid system for 1980 are freely available to all users at http://www.msc.ec.gc.ca/data/gloperd/.     

Pancreatic cancer mortality and organochlorine pesticide exposure in California, 1989-1996

BACKGROUND: Occupational studies have suggested a possible link between organochlorine pesticides and the occurrence of pancreatic cancers. California maintains a death file and a pesticide reporting system that allows examination of this relationship for residents of high use areas. METHODS: We employed a mortality odds ratio design to compare deaths from pancreatic cancer (1989-1996) with a random sample of non-cancer deaths. Using pesticide data for three agricultural counties, we classified 102 ZIP codes in quartiles of pesticide usage for 1972-1989. Using logistic regression we estimated the effect of pesticide applications by ZIP code controlling for possible confounders. RESULTS: Among long-term residents, pancreatic cancer mortality was elevated for those living in ZIP codes with the highest use of four pesticides: 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-d), captafol, pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB), and dieldrin. No dose-response relationship was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests increased pancreatic cancer mortality among long-term residents in areas of high application rates of 1,3-d (an EPA-classified probable human carcinogen), captafol, pentacholoronitrobenzene (PCNB), and dieldrin.     

Urinary pyrethroid metabolites among pregnant women in an agricultural area of the Province of Jiangsu, China

Pyrethroid pesticides are widely used throughout the world in agriculture to protect crops and in public health to control diseases. Of particular concern is exposure of pregnant women and their fetuses because little is known about the potential developmental hazards of such exposure. Several studies have detected internal pyrethroid exposure in urine both in adults and children, but few published data are available on metabolites in pregnant women. The present paper provides data on pyrethroid pesticides exposure based on questionnaire items and measurement of maternal urinary metabolite levels among 1149 pregnant women living in agricultural area of Jiangsu Province, China in 2009-2010, none of which reported occupational exposure to pyrethroid insecticides during pregnancy. To assess exposure to pyrethroid pesticides, urine specimens were analyzed for three main metabolites of 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), cis-and-trans-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (cis-DCCA and trans-DCCA) using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. The limits of detection for three pyrethroid metabolites were 0.1μg/L. All pyrethroid metabolites were found in more than 94.0% of the urine samples. Median unadjusted and creatinine-adjusted values for urinary pyrethroid metabolites in these females were 1.01μg/L and 1.55μg/g Cre for 3-PBA, 0.44μg/L and 0.69μg/g Cre for cis-DCCA, 1.17μg/L and 1.86μg/g Cre for trans-DCCA, respectively. About half (45.5%) of women reported that they or family members had applied commercially available indoor insecticides during pregnancy. Both the questionnaire and laboratory data revealed that exposure to pyrethroid pesticides was considerably widespread in our subjects. The median values of urinary metabolites in the present study were about 4-10 times higher as those of general population from the developed countries. Interestingly, we found there was a temporal season variation tendency in different months. Especially, the levels of urinary metabolites in summer were significant higher than those in winter. These data indicated the need to assess the potential adverse effects of pyrethroid pesticides exposure on fetuses and infants in order to take adequate measures to protect pregnant women from pesticide exposures during pregnancy.     

Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure.

BACKGROUND: This study describes geographical differences in cancer incidence in Costa Rica, and investigates if some of these differences may be related to pesticides. METHODS: Data were combined from the cancer registry (1981-1993), the 1984 population census, the 1984 agricultural census, and a national pesticide data set. The 81 counties of Costa Rica were the units for the ecological analyses. Adjacent counties were grouped into 14 regions (3 urban and 11 rural) with relatively similar socioeconomic characteristics. County indices for population density and agricultural variables were constructed and categorized. Differences across regions and categories were assessed by comparing observed numbers of incident cases to expected values derived from national rates. Within the tertile of most rural counties, rate ratios between categories of high and low pesticide use were calculated. RESULTS: In urban regions, excesses were observed for lung, colorectal, breast, uterus, ovary, prostate, testis, kidney, and bladder cancers; and in rural regions for gastric, cervical, penile, and skin cancers. Skin cancers (lip, melanoma, non-melanocytic skin and penile cancer) occurred in excess in coffee growing areas with extensive use of paraquat and lead arsenate. In the most rural subset, heavy pesticide use was associated with an increase of cancer incidence overall and at a considerable number of specific sites, including lung cancer (relative risk [RR] 2.0 for men and 2.6 for women) and all female hormone-related cancers (RR between 1.3 and 1.8). CONCLUSIONS: Regions and populations at high risk for specific cancers were identified. Several hypotheses for associations between pesticides and cancer emerged. The findings call for studies at the individual level.     

Esperanza y Vida: A Culturally and Linguistically Customized Breast and Cervical Education Program for Diverse Latinas at Three Different United States Sites

Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer and the leading cause of cancer death among Latinas in the United States. In addition, Latinas experience a disproportionate burden of cervical cancer incidence, morbidity, and mortality compared with non-Hispanic White women. Lower use of breast and cervical cancer screening services may contribute to these disparities. To address the underutilization of breast and cervical cancer screening among diverse subgroups of Latinas, a peer-led education program called Esperanza y Vida (“Hope and Life”) was developed and administered at 3 sites (2 in New York and 1 in Arkansas). Immigrant Latina women and their partners were educated about the importance of breast and cervical cancer screening, with the goals of increasing their knowledge about these cancers and their screening behavior. An analysis of the intervention's findings at baseline among female participants demonstrated significant sociodemographic, interpersonal, cultural, health care system, and program variability in 3 distinct geographic regions in the United States. These data indicate the need for and feasibility of customizing cancer outreach and educational programs for diverse Latina subgroups living in various U.S. regions, with implications for informing the expansion and replication of the program in other regions of the country.     

有机磷农药与再生障碍性贫血发病关系的Meta分析

目的 评价有机磷农药与再生障碍性贫血发病的关系,为一级预防提供科学依据。方法 检索1990年1月至2014年8月公开发表在中国生物医学文献数据库(CBM)、中国知网(CNKI)、PubMed和EMBASE关于有机磷农药与再生障碍性贫血发病关系的病例对照研究。制定纳入和排除标准,对符合纳入标准的文献进行质量评价,利用Review Manager 5.0软件计算有机磷农药的合并OR值及其95%CI,并对文献的研究人群和有机磷农药使用方式进行亚组分析。结果 最终共纳入9篇文献,5 833例研究对象,其中病例组1 404人,对照组4 429人。结果显示有机磷农药可增加再生障碍性贫血的发病风险(OR=1.97,95%CI:1.60～2.44)。亚组分析显示亚洲人群再生障碍性贫血的发病风险(OR=2.01,95%CI:1.52～2.66)高于欧美人群(OR=1.93,95%CI:1.39～2.67);使用单一有机磷类农药(OR=2.15,95%CI:1.60～2.88)比使用有机磷类农药的混配制剂(OR=1.82,95%CI:1.34～2.47)更易引发再生障碍性贫血。结论 有机磷农药可能是再生障碍性贫血的危险因素。在日常生活和工农业生产中,减少有机磷农药的暴露,可以预防再生障碍性贫血的发生。     

Pesticides in Lebanon: a knowledge, attitude, and practice study

Pesticides, despite their known toxicity, are widely used in developing countries. Evaluating the pattern of their use would be interesting to assess the appropriateness of adequate intervention. Using a standardized questionnaire, a knowledge, attitude, and practice study was performed in two Lebanese regions, in which a group of agricultural workers was compared to workers of the general population and a third group of pesticide distributors. Agricultural workers were exposed to pesticides during cropping, mixing, loading, and application (100%). They had low pesticide knowledge scales compared to pesticide distributors and to the general population workers (P<10(-7)). The preventive measures they took were low, and the lower their knowledge was, the lower were the preventive measures applied (P<10(-3)). Pesticide safety education is necessary in order to induce protective behavior among agricultural workers. The general population may also benefit from increasing their awareness regarding pesticides.     

Temporal, personal and spatial variability in dermal exposure

A database of dermal exposure measurements (DERMDAT) comprising data from 20 surveys was created. The majority of dermal exposure measurements were from agricultural settings in which workers' exposure to pesticides was investigated. Other data came from studies of workers exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. coke-oven workers and paving workers) and from studies of subjects exposed to complex mixtures (rubber industry). The database contains approximately 6400 observations. Grouping the workers by job title, factory and body location and excluding groups with more than 25% data below the limit of detection, or with less than two workers with at least two repeats, resulted in 283 groups with 1065 workers and 2716 measurements. Analyses of variability showed median values of the total, within- and between-worker geometric standard deviations of respectively 2.55, 1.98 and 1.47, strikingly similar to what has been published previously for respiratory exposure. Within-worker variability ((w)S(2)y) was in general higher than between-worker variability ((b)S(2)y) in dermal exposure levels. Agricultural groups of re-entry workers showed very little to no between-worker variability, while industrial groups did show some variability in individual mean exposures (range (b)S(2)y=0.15-0.29). When the between-body-location component (bl)S(2)y) was also addressed, it turned out to be the most prominent component (median (b)S(2)y=0.004; median (w)S(2)y=0.12; median (bl)S(2)y=0.34). In agriculture the between-body-location component was smaller than in industry. Day-to-day variability in dermal exposure levels appeared to be significant for specific locations, but not for the average of several body-location. Underlying exposure scenarios (transfer and deposition) also played an important role.     

Effectiveness of cleaning practices in removing pesticides from home environments

The deposition of agricultural pesticides in the homes of agricultural workers and residents of agricultural communities is a major environmental health concern. The effectiveness of home cleaning activities in removing pesticides from home surfaces has not been tested. An intervention study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of cleaning windowsills, floors and carpets in a sample of 10 farmworker homes. Baseline measures of organophosphorus (OP) pesticide residues were obtained, a standardized cleaning intervention was applied and follow-up measures of pesticide residues were obtained within 24-48 hours after the cleaning and 12 months later. House dust was analyzed for six OP pesticides. All homes had detectable baseline levels of OP pesticides on floors and windowsills. Cleaning of linoleum floors was ineffective in removing total pesticide residues and cleaning effectiveness varied among the pesticides. The cleaning of total OP pesticides on the windowsills was effective (median decrease was 0.0029 microg/cm(2), 1-sided p-value = 0.01). Steam cleaning carpets essentially reduced the amounts to non-detectable levels. In 12 months the levels in carpets had accumulated to one-third of the baseline levels. These results provide evidence that cleaning practices can reduce the amount of pesticides in agricultural homes; however the type of surface being cleaned and the pesticides present in the home may influence results.