Growth and nutrition of Chinese vegetarian children in Hong Kong

OBJECTIVE: The study investigated the nutritional status of Chinese lacto-ovo-vegetarian children aged 4-14 years. METHODOLOGY: Dietary intake over 7 days was assessed using a computer program, previously used for a local population-based dietary survey. Anthropometric measurements were made and fasting venous blood was examined for serum lipids, haematological data, iron, vitamin B12 and folate status. Bone mineral density (BMD) of the spine (L2 - L4) was measured as a reflection of calcium status. RESULTS: Fifty-one lacto-ovo-vegetarians aged 4-14 years were investigated. The mean +/- standard deviation (SD) daily energy intake was 1600 +/- 425 kcal. The mean (+/- SD) daily protein intake was 1.6 +/- 0.6 g/kg bodyweight which met the United States recommended dietary allowance. Compared to that of the local omnivore diet, the vegetarian diet was closer to the recommended healthy diet with lower fat (20-23%), more fibre (5.8-8.7 g/day) and better polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratio (1.0-1.1). Growth and BMD of the vegetarian children were comparable to the general omnivore population. Two children had iron deficiency and two children had anaemia. The calcium status, as reflected by the BMD, was not impaired. Serum folate and vitamin B12 were within the normal range. Six (25%) boys and four (15%) girls were obese. Three boys had hyperlipidaemia. CONCLUSIONS: A Hong Kong Chinese vegetarian diet appears healthy, providing adequate iron and vitamin B12 nutrition, but the prevalence of obesity was high.     

Measurement of body fat using leg to leg bioimpedance.

AIMS: (1) To validate a leg to leg bioimpedance analysis (BIA) device in the measurement of body composition in children by assessment of its agreement with dual energy x ray absorptiometry (DXA) and its repeatability. (2) To establish a reference range of percentage body fat in Hong Kong Chinese children. METHODS: Sequential BIA and DXA methods were used to determine body composition in 49 children aged 7-18 years; agreement between the two methods was calculated. Repeatability for the BIA method was established from duplicate measurements. Body composition was then determined by BIA in 1139 girls and 1243 boys aged 7-16 years, who were randomly sampled in eight local primary and secondary schools to establish reference ranges. RESULTS: The 95% limits of agreement between BIA and DXA methods were considered acceptable (-3.3 kg to -0.5 kg fat mass and -3.9 to 0.6% body fat). The percentage body fat increased with increasing age. Compared to the 1993 Hong Kong growth survey, these children had higher body mass index. Mean (SD) percentage body fat at 7 years of age was 17.2% (4.4%) and 14.0% (3.4%) respectively for boys and girls, which increased to 19.3% (4.8%) and 27.8% (6.3%) at age 16. CONCLUSION: Leg to leg BIA is a valid alternative method to DXA for the measurement of body fat. Provisional reference ranges for percentage body fat for Hong Kong Chinese children aged 7-16 years are provided.     

The most essential nutrient: defining the adequate intake of water

Although water is quantitatively the most import nutrient, there are no recommended dietary allowances (RDA) or adequate intake (AI) values. Based on 718 assessments of 24-hour total water intake, urine volume, and urine osmolality, individual hydration status was characterized in 479 healthy boys and girls of the DONALD study aged 4.0 to 6.9 years and 7.0 to 10.9 years. Mean 24-hour total water intake ranged from 0.90 mL/kcal to 0.96 mL/kcal, and median 24-hour urine osmolality ranged from 683 mosm/kg to 854 mosm/kg. A maximum urine osmolality of 830 mosm/kg (mean - 2 SD) in healthy children with a typical affluent Western-type diet was the physiologic criterion of the upper limit of euhydration. "Water reserve" (24-hour urine volume - hypothetical urine volume to excrete 24 urine solutes at a concentration of 830 mosm/kg) was a quantitative measure of individual 24-hour hydration status and ensuring euhydration in 97% of the subjects in each group; AI values of total water in the 4 age and sex groups ranged from 1.01 mL/kcal to 1.05 mL/kcal. These procedures to quantify 24-hour hydration status may prove valuable in investigating the effects on health of different states of euhydration.     

Energy and nutrient supply during childhood. I. Food intake and energy supply (author's transl)

From 1965--1975 the food intake and energy supply of children aged 2--14 years in families of different social classes were studied with the precise weighing method. The individual child was surveyed on an average of 21--42 successive days. Energy intake increased from 1450 for boys aged 2--3 years to 2600 kcal/day for boys aged 12--14 years, girls of the same age had an energy intake between 1300 to 2400 kcal/day. The differences between boys and girls regarding energy intake, absolute and per kg body weight, are shown. Our results of the energy intake are representative for children of the same age groups in other highly industrialized countries. The energy intake of preschool-children was equally distributed among 4 meals per day, whereas in school-children it was distributed among 5 meals with different energy contents. 35--50% of the energy supply is of animal origin, 60--65% of vegetable origin. The contribution of different food groups to the energy supply and the differences in the intake of these food groups between pre-school-and school-children are demonstrated. For the individual child a survey period of 21--28 days is necessary to obtain its individual average energy intake with the maximum standard deviation. The significance of general averages for the energy supply of age groups regarding the individual child is discussed. The day to day variations of energy intake in children are shown. The significance of these variations for nutrition in health and disease is discussed.     

Impact of nutrient density of nocturnal enteral feeds on appetite: a prospective, randomised crossover study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the energy density of isocaloric nocturnal enteral feeds (NEF) influences daily nutrient intake in children. METHOD: In a 6 week, randomised, crossover trial, the impact on spontaneous nutrient intake of manipulating the energy density of two isocaloric overnight feeds (1.0 kcal/ml and 1.5 kcal/ml) was compared in a group of 32 children aged 1-10 years (or 8-25 kg body weight) on long term, overnight enteral feeding at home. Total daily oral energy, protein, fat and carbohydrate intake were assessed using 3 day food diaries. Anthropometric data were also recorded during the study. RESULTS: Spontaneous intakes of energy, protein, fat and carbohydrate from food were 20-30% greater when receiving the lower nutrient density feed (1 kcal/ml). This was due to a gender effect; males consumed twice as much protein from food than females and had slightly higher (but not significant) energy and fat intakes when on the larger volume feed. All children increased in weight, height and mid-upper arm circumference in the 6 week period. CONCLUSIONS: Children appear to tolerate and grow equally well, irrespective of the nutrient density and volume of NEF taken. However, it appears that children will consume a more energy and nutrient dense oral diet when given their NEF as a higher volume/lower nutrient density feed. This is particularly so for boys, while for girls the volume of NEF or feed concentration appeared to have no impact on quantity of oral diet taken. However, further blinded studies with larger subject numbers would be useful to support these findings.     

Increased prevalence of constipation in pre-school children is attributable to under-consumption of plant foods: A community-based study

Aim: To evaluate consumption of foods rich in dietary fibre and its relation to the prevalence of constipation in pre‐school children. Methods: In total, 368 children aged 3–5 years were randomly selected from kindergartens in Hong Kong. Constipation was confirmed by Rome‐criteria. Children with normal bowel habits served as non‐constipated controls. Consumption of vegetables, fruits, whole‐grain cereals and fluid were determined using a 3‐day food record. Results: A total of 28.8% children were reported to have constipation. Median dietary fibre intake of constipated children was significantly lower than non‐constipated children (3.4 g/d (inter‐quartile range (IQR): 2.3–4.6 g/d) vs. 3.8 g/d (IQR: 2.7–4.9 g/d); P = 0.044) corresponding to 40% reference dietary fibre intake. Constipated children also had significantly lower intakes of vitamin C (P = 0.041), folate (P = 0.043) and magnesium (P = 0.002). Fruit intake and total plant foods intake were significantly lower in the constipated than non‐constipated children: (61 g/d (IQR: 23.8–115 g/d) vs. 78 g/d (IQR: 41.7–144.6 g/d); P = 0.047) and (142.5 g/d (IQR: 73.7–214.7 g/d) vs. 161.1 g/d (IQR: 98.3–233.3 g/d); P = 0.034), respectively. Total fluid intake did not differ between groups but milk intake among the constipated children was marginally higher than the non‐constipated children (P = 0.055) Conclusion: Insufficient dietary fibre intake is common in Hong Kong pre‐school children. Constipated children had significantly lower intakes of dietary fibre and micronutrients including vitamin C, folate and magnesium than non‐constipated counterparts which was attributable to under‐consumption of plant foods. However, milk intake was marginally higher in the constipated children. More public education is necessary for parents to help develop healthy dietary habit and bowel habit in early life in order to prevent childhood constipation.     

Television, computer use, physical activity, diet and fatness in Australian adolescents.

PURPOSE: To examine sedentary behaviours (including television viewing, playing computer games and computer use), diet, exercise and fitness in relation to overweight/obesity in Australian adolescents. METHODS: Questionnaires elicited food frequency data, time spent in TV-viewing, using computers, other sedentary occupations and physical activity recall. Weight, height and fitness (laps completed in the Leger test) were measured. RESULTS: Among 281 boys and 321 girls, mean age 12 years (SD 0.9), 56 boys (20.0%) and 70 girls (23.3%) were overweight/obese. Greater fitness was associated with decreased risk of overweight/obesity in boys (Odds ratio [OR] 0.74; 95% CI 0.55, 0.99) and girls (OR 0.93; 95% CI 0.91, 0.99). TV-viewing predicted increased risk in boys (OR 1.04; 95% CI 1.01, 1.06) and decreased risk in girls (OR 0.99; 95% CI 0.96, 0.99). Computer use, video games, and other sedentary behaviours were not significantly related to risk of overweight/obesity. Vegetable intake was associated with lower risk in boys (OR 0.98; 95% CI 0.97, 0.99); greater risk was associated with lower fat intake in boys and girls, lower consumption of energy-dense snacks in boys (OR 0.74; 95% CI 0.62, 0.88) and greater intake of vegetables in girls (OR 1.02; 95% CI 1.00, 1.03), suggesting dieting or knowledge of favourable dietary choices in overweight/obese children. CONCLUSIONS: Among these adolescents, fitness was negatively related to risk for overweight/obesity in boys and girls. TV-viewing was a positive predictor in boys and a negative predictor in girls but the effect size was small; other sedentary behaviours did not predict risk.     

Effects of diet on the neurologic development of children at 5 years of age: the STRIP project

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects of diet, serum cholesterol concentrations, and apolipoprotein E phenotype on neurodevelopment of 5-year-old children. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, 4.4-year cohort study in 496 children. Fat-modified diet was introduced to intervention families of 7-month-old infants. Control children consumed an unrestricted diet. Nutrient intakes, serum cholesterol, and neurodevelopment were studied. The groups were combined in univariate and stepwise multivariate logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: In 13-month-old boys (girls), energy intake was 996 (938) kcal, fat intake 26.6 (26.4) percent of energy (E%), and protein intake 17.2 (17.4) E%. In 5-year-old boys (girls), the intakes were 1484 (1364) kcal, 32.1 (31.9) E%, and 15.5 (15.9) E%, respectively. The intakes of total fat and saturated fat and serum cholesterol were not associated with neurodevelopment. In boys, high intake of protein at 5 years, high intakes of protein at 4 years and cholesterol at 2 years, and high intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids at 3 years predicted favorable outcomes in the tests of speech and language skills, gross motor function and perception, and visual motor skills, respectively. Apolipoprotein E phenotype did not influence the test performance. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate restriction of dietary fat has no unfavorable effects on neurodevelopment in early childhood. However, the quality of fat and the relative intake of protein may influence neurodevelopment of the boys.     

Food consumption and nutrient intake of one- to two-year-old Finnish children

Food consumption data for 46, 1- to 2-year-old children in Helsinki were collected by means of 3-day food records. The mean daily energy intake was 1242 kcal for boys and 1092 kcal for girls. Protein accounted for 16% (range 9-24%), fat 33% (20-50%), total carbohydrates 51% (35-69%) and sucrose 12% (3-33%) of total energy intake. The mean ratio of polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids was 0.43 (0.11-3.71). The average energy and nutrient intake met or exceeded the recommended amounts except for iron, zinc, fluorine and chromium. When the children were divided into four groups according to dietary fat content, the intake of several nutrients was lowest in the group with the highest fat content (40% or more of energy) even though energy intake did not differ. The wide variety observed, especially in the fat composition of the children's diets, indicates a need to reconsider the recommendations concerning the diet of young children after they have made the transition to family food.     

Vitamin D deficiency and calcium intake in reference to increased body mass index in children and adolescents

Vitamin D deficiency has been linked to several chronic diseases in adults. Studies focusing on children and adolescents, however, are limited. In this randomized cross-sectional study, we aimed to determine the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and its relationship with childhood obesity and dietary calcium intake among a population of healthy urban Saudi children and adolescents. To achieve this, 331 randomly selected Saudi children (53.8% females and 46.2% males) aged 6-17 years were included. Demographic, medical, and dietary information were collected; anthropometrics were measured. Levels of serum fasting glucose, lipid profile, 25(OH) D, and for albumin corrected calcium were analyzed. Vitamin D deficiency was noted in all subjects, with girls having significantly lower vitamin D levels than boys. Mean calcium intake was found to be 60% of the required dietary allowance (RDA), while the mean vitamin D intake was 23% of RDA. Vitamin D status and calcium intake were comparable in both normal and overweight/obese children and adolescents. Vitamin D status was highest among children who had calcium intake >800 mg/day. In adolescents there was insignificant but decreasing trend in BMI, which was observed to be highest among those whose calcium intake was <250 mg/day and lowest among those taking >800 mg/day. Conclusion: results from this study suggest the importance of vitamin D fortification and increased dietary calcium in the Saudi diet to meet RDA requirements and avoid onset of vitamin D deficiency-related diseases in Saudi children and adolescents.     

Nutrient intakes and impact of fortified breakfast cereals in schoolchildren.

OBJECTIVE: To report micronutrient intakes in Northern Ireland schoolchildren, and to establish the contribution of fortified breakfast cereal to overall nutrient intakes and achievement of current dietary recommendations. DESIGN: Analysis of dietary intakes and physical characteristics of participants in a randomly selected 2% population sample of 1015 schoolchildren aged 12 and 15 years in Northern Ireland during the 1990/1 school year. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Dietary intakes, physical characteristics, and their association with consumption of fortified breakfast cereal. RESULTS: Mean micronutrient intakes were generally adequate with the exception of low intakes of folate (boys and girls) and iron (girls). Fortified breakfast cereals, consumed by a high proportion (94% boys; 83% girls) of the sample, were associated with higher daily intakes of most micronutrients and fibre and with a macronutrient profile consistent with current nutritional recommendations. Appreciable proportions of subjects who did not consume fortified breakfast cereals had daily intakes that fell below the lower reference nutrient intake for riboflavin, niacin, folate, vitamin B-12, and iron (girls). CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate the potential of fortification in contributing to micronutrient intakes of schoolchildren, particularly where requirements are high, or for those on marginal diets of low nutritional quality.     

Nutrient intakes and impact of fortified breakfast cereals in schoolchildren

OBJECTIVE: To report micronutrient intakes in Northern Ireland schoolchildren, and to establish the contribution of fortified breakfast cereal to overall nutrient intakes and achievement of current dietary recommendations. DESIGN: Analysis of dietary intakes and physical characteristics of participants in a randomly selected 2% population sample of 1015 schoolchildren aged 12 and 15 years in Northern Ireland during the 1990/1 school year. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Dietary intakes, physical characteristics, and their association with consumption of fortified breakfast cereal. RESULTS: Mean micronutrient intakes were generally adequate with the exception of low intakes of folate (boys and girls) and iron (girls). Fortified breakfast cereals, consumed by a high proportion (94% boys; 83% girls) of the sample, were associated with higher daily intakes of most micronutrients and fibre and with a macronutrient profile consistent with current nutritional recommendations. Appreciable proportions of subjects who did not consume fortified breakfast cereals had daily intakes that fell below the lower reference nutrient intake for riboflavin, niacin, folate, vitamin B-12, and iron (girls). CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrate the potential of fortification in contributing to micronutrient intakes of schoolchildren, particularly where requirements are high, or for those on marginal diets of low nutritional quality.     

Total and resting energy expenditure in children with sickle cell disease

OBJECTIVE: To investigate energy balance in children with sickle cell disease (SCD) as the possible cause of impaired growth and undernutrition. STUDY DESIGN: Growth, resting (REE), total (TEE), and activity-related (AEE) energy expenditure and dietary intake were examined in 36 African American children with SCD (20 girls and 16 boys) and 30 control subjects (15 girls and 15 boys) of similar age (mean, 11.2 years) and ethnicity. TEE was measured by means of the doubly labeled water technique and REE by indirect calorimetry. AEE was calculated as TEE minus REE. Fat free mass (FFM) was calculated from skinfold prediction equations. RESULTS: REE was significantly increased (131 kcal/d) in children with SCD (P =.001), after adjusting for sex and FFM. Children with SCD tended to have lower TEE (214 kcal/d) than control subjects, but there was no difference after adjusting for FFM and sex (P =.57). Children with SCD had significantly (P =.025) lower AEE (268 kcal/d) but only marginally (P =.08) lower AEE after adjusting for FFM and sex. CONCLUSIONS: The elevated REE and lower AEE, in combination with poor growth status, indicate chronic energy deficiency in children with SCD. Further studies are needed to determine the best approaches to the treatment and prevention of undernutrition in children with SCD.     

Nutritional and energetic consequences of sweetened drink consumption in 6- to 13-year-old children

OBJECTIVE: To study the effects of excessive sweetened drink consumption on daily energy balance and nutrient intake in a longitudinal study of children. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Daily dietary intakes of 30 children aged 6 to 13 years old were collected over 4 to 8 weeks. Weights and heights of children were measured at the beginning and end of the study in 21 children. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA) (PROC MIXED in SAS) and multiple regression. RESULTS: Excessive sweetened drink consumption (>12 oz/day) displaced milk from children's diets (122-147 g/day less milk drank, P <.0001) because caregivers served less milk and the children consumed smaller amounts of milk. The consequences were lower daily protein, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and vitamin A intakes. Because children failed to reduce consumption of solid foods to compensate for the caloric contribution of sweetened drinks, higher daily energy intakes were observed. Consequently, the greater the sweetened drink consumption the greater the weight gain (1.12 +/- 0.7 kg) compared with children who consumed <12 oz per day (0.32-0.48 +/- 0.4 kg). CONCLUSIONS: Excessive sweetened drink consumption is associated with the displacement of milk from children's diets, higher daily energy intake, and greater weight gain.     

Anemia and undernutrition among preschool children in Uttar Pradesh, India

This study was conducted to assess the prevalence of anemia among preschool children (3-5 years) and its association with malnutrition in rural Barabanki district of Uttar Pradesh, India. Three out of 18 sub-centers in Nindura block, Barabanki, each with six villages, were randomly selected for this survey and 654 boys and 546 girls were included. Mean hemoglobin level in g/dL among boys and girls was 10.1 (SD: 1.66) and 9.9 (SD: 1.67) (P <0.06) respectively. The proportion of anemic children (Hb <11 g/dL) was 70%. Boys were heavier and taller as compared to girls. Among the 67.3% underweight children the mean hemoglobin level was 9.85 (SD: 1.67) as compared to 10.39 (SD: 1.62) in those without malnutrition (P <0.0001). Likewise, stunted children (87.6%) had statistically significantly lower mean hemoglobin levels than those not stunted. The odds ratio of an underweight and stunted child having moderate to severe anemia was 1.66. While more than half caretakers knew about the term "anemia " and associated physical weakness with it, only very few (2.5%) knew that iron intake will improve it. They relied on "doctors" (86.7%) for anemia prevention.     

Increased food intake of young children receiving a zinc supplement

Food intake was calculated in 30 young children with evidence of mild zinc deficiency. In a double-blind controlled study of one year's duration, the test children (n = 15, including ten boys) received a zinc supplement (average, 4.2 mg/day), and the controls received a placebo syrup. Increases during the study period in calculated intakes of energy, protein, and nine other nutrients were attributable to the zinc supplementation. A significant treatment effect on nutrient intakes was also observed for the boys but not for the girls. Calculated daily energy intakes of the test boys increased from an initial mean of 1,280 kcal (88% Recommended Dietary Allowance [RDA] ) to a final mean of 1,880 kcal (118% RDA). Zinc deficiency should be considered in the differential diagnosis of anorexia in young children.     

Regulation of growth of 7- to 36-month-old children by energy and fat intake in the prospective, randomized STRIP baby trial

OBJECTIVE: To study the fat and energy intakes of children between 7 and 36 months of age with different growth patterns. METHODS: In the Special Turku coronary Risk factor Intervention Project for Babies, children were randomized to intervention (n = 540) and control groups (n = 522) at age 7 months. The intervention was aimed at replacing part of the saturated fat intake with monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat to reduce children's exposure to high serum cholesterol values. The control children consumed a free diet. Children followed for >2 years (n = 848) were included in the analysis. Five groups of children representing different extreme growth patterns during the first 3 years of life were formed, and their energy and fat intakes were analyzed. Relative weight was defined as deviation of weight in percentages from the mean weight of healthy children of same height and sex, and relative height as deviation of height in SD units from the mean height of healthy children of same age and sex. RESULTS: Relative fat intakes (as percent of energy intake) were similar in children showing highly different height gain patterns. The thin (mean relative weight /= 95%) and the obese (mean relative weight >/= 95%) were highest, but weight-based energy intake of the tall (at 2 years, 82 [13] kcal/kg) and the obese (79 [17] kcal/kg) were lower than that of children with normal growth (89 [16] kcal/kg). The thin children consumed relatively more energy than the children with normal growth (at 2 years, 94 [13] kcal/kg and 89 [16] kcal/kg, respectively). Parental height and body mass index and the child's absolute and relative energy intakes predicted the best children's growth patterns. Children with consistently low fat intake grew equally to the children with higher fat intake. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate supervised restriction of fat intake to values 25 to 30 E% is compatible with normal growth.     

Relation between dietary intake and nutritional status in cystic fibrosis

This study evaluated adherence to current dietary recommendations of children with cystic fibrosis and mild lung disease and their siblings by comparing energy intake. Fifty children (25 with cystic fibrosis) aged between 7 and 12 years completed the study. Energy intake was assessed by weighed dietary intake, resting energy expenditure was used to calculate recommended daily intakes. The children with cystic fibrosis had significant deficits in Z scores for both height and weight compared with their siblings, but there was no difference in percentage of ideal weight for height. The cystic fibrosis group had a significantly higher energy intake per kilogram body weight per day but there was no difference in the percentage of energy derived from fat, protein or carbohydrate. Energy intake (per kg/day) and fat intake (g/kg) were both significant predictors of weight for height in the cystic fibrosis group. Targets for dietary management in cystic fibrosis should perhaps be related to fat intake per kilogram body weight.     

Milk intake is inversely related to body mass index and body fat in girls

Dairy foods comprise a range of products with varying nutritional content. The intake of dairy products (DPs) has been shown to have beneficial effects on body weight and body fat. This study aimed to examine the independent association between DP intake, body mass index (BMI), and percentage body fat (%BF) in adolescents. A cross-sectional, school-based study was conducted with 1,001 adolescents (418 boys), ages 15-18?years, from the Azorean Archipelago, Portugal. Anthropometric measurements were recorded (weight and height), and %BF was assessed using bioelectric impedance analysis. Adolescent food intake was measured using a self-administered, semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Data were analyzed separately for girls and boys, and separate multiple linear regression analysis was used to estimate the association between total DP, milk, yogurt, and cheese intake, BMI, and %BF, adjusting for potential confounders. For boys and girls, respectively, total DP consumption was 2.6?±?1.9 and 2.9?±?2.5 servings/day (P?=?0.004), while milk consumption was 1.7?±?1.4 and 2.0?±?1.7 servings/day (P?=?0.001), yogurt consumption was 0.5?±?0.6 and 0.4?±?0.7 servings/day (P?=?0.247), and cheese consumption was 0.4?±?0.6 and 0.5?±?0.8 servings/day (P?=?0.081). After adjusting for age, birth weight, energy intake, protein, total fat, sugar, dietary fiber, total calcium intake, low-energy reporters, parental education, pubertal stage, and physical activity, only milk intake was negatively associated with BMI and %BF in girls (respectively, girls: β?=?-0.167, P?=?0.013; boys: β?=?-0.019, P?=?0.824 and girls: β?=?-0.143, P?=?0.030; boys: β?=?-0.051, P?=?0.548). Conclusion: We found an inverse association between milk intake and both BMI and %BF only in girls.     

Relation between dietary intake and nutritional status in cystic fibrosis

This study evaluated adherence to current dietary recommendations of children with cystic fibrosis and mild lung disease and their siblings by comparing energy intake. Fifty children (25with cystic fibrosis) aged between 7 and 12 years completed the study. Energy intake was assessed by weighed dietary intake, resting energy expenditure was used to calculate recommended daily intakes. The children with cystic fibrosis had significant deficits in Z scores for both height and weight compared with their siblings, but there was no difference in percentage of ideal weight for height. The cystic fibrosis group had a significantly higher energy intake per kilogram body weight per day but there was no difference in the percentage of energy derived from fat, protein or carbohydrate. Energy intake (per kg/day) and fat intake (g/kg) were both significant predictors of weight for height in the cystic fibrosis group. Targets for dietary management in cystic fibrosis should perhaps be related to fat intake per kilogram body weight.