High-Temperature Protein G Is an Essential Virulence Factor of Leptospira interrogans

Leptospira interrogans is a global zoonotic pathogen and is the causative agent of leptospirosis, an endemic disease of humans and animals worldwide. There is limited understanding of leptospiral pathogenesis; therefore, further elucidation of the mechanisms involved would aid in vaccine development and the prevention of infection. HtpG (high-temperature protein G) is the bacterial homolog to the highly conserved molecular chaperone Hsp90 and is important in the stress responses of many bacteria. The specific role of HtpG, especially in bacterial pathogenesis, remains largely unknown. Through the use of an L. interroganshtpG transposon insertion mutant, this study demonstrates that L. interrogans HtpG is essential for virulence in the hamster model of acute leptospirosis. Complementation of the htpG mutant completely restored virulence. Surprisingly, the htpG mutant did not appear to show sensitivity to heat or oxidative stress, phenotypes common in htpG mutants in other bacterial species. Furthermore, the mutant did not show increased sensitivity to serum complement, reduced survival within macrophages, or altered protein or lipopolysaccharide expression. The underlying cause for attenuation thus remains unknown, but HtpG is a novel leptospiral virulence factor and one of only a very small number identified to date.     

Major Surface Protein LipL32 Is Not Required for Either Acute or Chronic Infection with Leptospira interrogans

Leptospira interrogans is responsible for leptospirosis, a zoonosis of worldwide distribution. LipL32 is the major outer membrane protein of pathogenic leptospires, accounting for up to 75% of total outer membrane protein. In recent times LipL32 has become the focus of intense study because of its surface location, dominance in the host immune response, and conservation among pathogenic species. In this study, an lipL32 mutant was constructed in L. interrogans using transposon mutagenesis. The lipL32 mutant had normal morphology and growth rate compared to the wild type and was equally adherent to extracellular matrix. Protein composition of the cell membranes was found to be largely unaffected by the loss of LipL32, with no obvious compensatory increase in other proteins. Microarray studies found no obvious stress response or upregulation of genes that may compensate for the loss of LipL32 but did suggest an association between LipL32 and the synthesis of heme and vitamin B₁₂. When hamsters were inoculated by systemic and mucosal routes, the mutant caused acute severe disease manifestations that were indistinguishable from wild-type L. interrogans infection. In the rat model of chronic infection, the LipL32 mutant colonized the renal tubules as efficiently as the wild-type strain. In conclusion, this study showed that LipL32 does not play a role in either the acute or chronic models of infection. Considering the abundance and conservation of LipL32 among all pathogenic Leptospira spp. and its absence in saprophytic Leptospira, this finding is remarkable. The role of this protein in leptospiral biology and pathogenesis thus remains elusive.Leptospira interrogans is a zoonotic spirochete with a worldwide distribution. In the chronic carrier state, host animals such as rats do not exhibit overt disease but are colonized by Leptospira in their renal tubules and shed bacteria in their urine. Humans are incidental hosts that become infected through exposure to contaminated water, soil, or urine. In the acute form of leptospirosis, disease severity ranges from asymptomatic infection to multiple organ failure, pulmonary hemorrhage, and death (13).The cellular and molecular mechanisms of leptospiral pathogenesis remain unclear. One of the major sites of interaction with the host is the bacterial outer membrane (OM). Analysis of the L. interrogans OM has identified a number of proteins (11, 12), the most abundant of which is LipL32, a 32-kDa lipoprotein estimated to account for a remarkable 75% of the OM proteome (11). LipL32 is also the most abundant surface-exposed protein (12).LipL32 is found in all pathogenic species tested to date and is highly conserved, with average amino acid identity over 98%, but it is not found in saprophytic species (16, 17). LipL32 is expressed during both chronic and acute infection and is highly immunogenic (15, 16, 27). These features have generated interest in LipL32 as a potential diagnostic reagent in both PCRs (21) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (14). There has also been much interest in the potential of LipL32 to generate heterologous immunity, overcoming the limitations of serovar-specific immunity. However, to date LipL32-based vaccines have met with limited success (5, 6).The abundance, conservation, unique presence in pathogenic species, and immunogenicity of LipL32 are consistent with an important role in pathogenesis. Available microarray data provide little insight into the role of LipL32 since gene expression is unchanged under conditions of different temperatures (22). Recent studies have shown that LipL32 may act as an adhesin binding to collagen, laminin, and fibronectin (18, 19) while LipL32 has also been associated with hemolysis (20). However, the precise role of LipL32 in pathogenesis remains unknown.In this study an lipL32 mutant was constructed by transposon mutagenesis. To our surprise, analysis of this mutant in the hamster model of acute infection and rat model of chronic infection showed that LipL32 is not required for causing either acute leptospirosis or renal colonization.     

Glucose 6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Is Required for Salmonella typhimurium Virulence and Resistance to Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Intermediates

Salmonella typhimurium zwf mutants lacking glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity have increased susceptibility to reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates as well as attenuated virulence in mice. Abrogation of the phagocyte respiratory burst oxidase during experimental infection with zwf mutant Salmonella causes a prompt restoration of virulence, while inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase results in delayed lethality. These observations suggest that G6PD-dependent bacterial antioxidant defenses play an important pathogenic role during early salmonellosis and additionally may help to antagonize NO-dependent antimicrobial mechanisms later in the course of infection.     

Mycobacterial Gene cuvA Is Required for Optimal Nutrient Utilization and Virulence

To persist and cause disease in the host, Mycobacterium tuberculosis must adapt to its environment during infection. Adaptations include changes in nutrient utilization and alterations in growth rate. M. tuberculosis Rv1422 is a conserved gene of unknown function that was found in a genetic screen to interact with the mce4 cholesterol uptake locus. The Rv1422 protein is phosphorylated by the M. tuberculosis Ser/Thr kinases PknA and PknB, which regulate cell growth and cell wall synthesis. Bacillus subtilis strains lacking the Rv1422 homologue yvcK grow poorly on several carbon sources, and yvcK is required for proper localization of peptidoglycan synthesis. Here we show that Mycobacterium smegmatis and M. tuberculosis strains lacking Rv1422 have growth defects in minimal medium containing limiting amounts of several different carbon sources. These strains also have morphological abnormalities, including shortened and bulging cells, suggesting a cell wall defect. In both mycobacterial species, the Rv1422 protein localizes uniquely to the growing cell pole, the site of peptidoglycan synthesis in mycobacteria. An M. tuberculosis ΔRv1422 strain is markedly attenuated for virulence in a mouse infection model, where it elicits decreased inflammation in the lungs and shows impaired bacterial persistence. These findings led us to name this gene cuvA (carbon utilization and virulence protein A) and to suggest a model in which deletion of cuvA leads to changes in nutrient uptake and/or metabolism that affect cell wall structure, morphology, and virulence. Its role in virulence suggests that CuvA may be a useful target for novel inhibitors of M. tuberculosis during infection.     

Enzymatic degradation of H2O2 by Leptospira.

The enzymes responsible for reducing H2O2 were surveyed in 49 strains of Leptospira by using semiquantitative assays for catalase and peroxidase. The survey revealed a differential distribution of catalase and peroxidase activities between the two leptospiral complexes. The pathogenic Leptospira interrogans strains gave strong catalase and weak or negative peroxidase reactions. Conversely, the nonpathogenic Leptospira biflexa strains gave strong peroxidase and negative or weak catalase reactions. An intermediate group of four L. biflexa strains, which were isolated from mammals, fell into the high peroxidase, low or negative catalase group. One water isolate, H-23, gave strong reactions for both enzymes and was examined for virulence and in vitro growth parameters. Results indicate metabolic differences between pathogens and water forms in their abilities to reduce H2O2.     

赖型钩端螺旋体及澳洲型钩端螺旋体的ompL1和flaB2抗原基因序列分析

目的：构建棘型钩端螺旋体017及澳洲型钩端螺旋体607株外膜蛋白抗原基因ompL1和内鞭毛抗原基因flaB2的重组质粒，并分别对ompL1及flaB2基因进行序列分析。方法：通过聚合酶链反应扩增ompL1及flaB2，并将其分别克隆到pcDNA3.1/Myc-His(＋）载体T7启动子下游，构建抗原基因表达质粒，进行序列测定分析。结果：序列分析显示赖型钩体017株与澳洲型钩体607株的ompL1相同碱基949个（98．85％），碱基变异11个（1．15％）；flaB2的相同碱基823个（96．94％），碱基变异26个（3．06％），呈很高的保守性。结论：赖型钩体017株与澳洲型钩体607株的ompL1及flaB2分别具有高度同源性。     

Changes in lipopolysaccharide O antigen distinguish acute versus chronic Leptospira interrogans infections

Leptospirosis is the most geographically widespread zoonotic disease in the world. A severe pulmonary form of leptospirosis (SPFL) is being recognized with increased frequency. We have reported that human SPFL isolates of Leptospira cause acute lethal infection with prominent pulmonary hemorrhage in guinea pigs. We have found that the same SPFL strains cause asymptomatic infection and chronic renal shedding in rats, where infection is restricted to the renal tubules. To address the antigenic composition of host tissue-derived Leptospira (HTL), motile leptospires were purified from guinea pig liver by centrifugation on Percoll density gradients and compared to Percoll-purified in vitro-cultivated Leptospira (IVCL). The lipopolysaccharide O antigen (Oag) content of guinea pig liver-derived HTL was markedly reduced compared to that of IVCL, as demonstrated both by immunoblotting with a monoclonal antibody that was serovar specific for Oag and by periodate-silver staining. Confocal microscopy of HTL in guinea pig liver and kidney with the Oag-specific monoclonal antibody provided further evidence that diminution of the Oag content occurred in situ during lethal infection. In contrast, the Oag content of HTL in chronically infected rat renal tubules was indistinguishable from that of IVCL. These findings suggest that there may be regulation of Oag synthesis by Leptospira specific to the animal host infected. The hypothesis that the Oag content is related to whether lethal infection or chronic renal tubular colonization occurs remains to be tested.     

Neither Dectin-2 nor the Mannose Receptor Is Required for Resistance to Coccidioides immitis in Mice

We investigated the roles of the mannose receptor (MR) and Dectin-2 in resistance to pulmonary coccidioidomycosis in C57BL/6 (B6) mice and in the interaction of myeloid cells with spherules, using B6 mice with targeted mutations in Mrc1 and Clec4n. Spherules are the tissue form of Coccidioides, and we determined that the MR on bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC) was important for recognition of spherules (formalin-killed spherules [FKS]) and for secretion of interleukin 10 (IL-10) and proinflammatory cytokines in response to FKS by both elicited macrophages and BMDC. Infected MR knockout (KO) mice produced more IL-10 in their lungs than did B6 mice, and MR KO mice also made more protective Th-17 cytokines. In contrast to the MR, Dectin-2 was not required for recognition of FKS by BMDC or for the production of cytokines by BMDC in response to FKS. However, Dectin-2 KO was required for stimulation of elicited peritoneal macrophages. Despite that, lung cytokine levels were not significantly different in Dectin-2 KO mice and B6 mice 14 days after infection, except for IL-1β, which was higher in Dectin-2 KO lungs. Although both Dectin-2^−/− and MR^−/− myeloid cells had reduced proinflammatory cytokine responses to FKS in vitro, neither MR nor Dectin-2 deficiency reduced the resistance of B6 mice to pulmonary coccidioidomycosis.     

Leptospiral LruA Is Required for Virulence and Modulates an Interaction with Mammalian Apolipoprotein AI

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis caused by spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. While understanding of pathogenesis remains limited, the development of mutagenesis in Leptospira has provided a powerful tool for identifying novel virulence factors. LruA is a lipoprotein that has been implicated in leptospiral uveitis as a target of the immune response. In this study, two lruA mutants, M754 and M765, generated by transposon mutagenesis from Leptospira interrogans serovar Manilae, were characterized. In M754, the transposon inserted in the middle of lruA, resulting in no detectable expression of LruA. In M765, the transposon inserted toward the 3′ end of the gene, resulting in expression of a truncated protein. LruA was demonstrated to be on the cell surface in M765 and the wild type (WT). M754, but not M765, was attenuated in a hamster model of acute infection. A search for differential binding to human serum proteins identified a serum protein of around 30 kDa bound to the wild type and the LruA deletion mutant (M754), but not to the LruA truncation mutant (M765). Two-dimensional separation of proteins from leptospiral cells incubated with guinea pig serum identified the 28-kDa apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) as a major mammalian serum protein that binds Leptospira in vitro. Interestingly, M754 (with no detectable LruA) bound more ApoA-I than did the LruA-expressing strains Manilae wild type and M765. Our data thus identify LruA as a surface-exposed leptospiral virulence factor that contributes to leptospiral pathogenesis, possibly by modulating cellular interactions with serum protein ApoA-I.     

A Weaning Reaction to Microbiota Is Required for Resistance to Immunopathologies in the Adult

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钩端螺旋体溶血素Sph2表达模式及诱导巨噬细胞和肝细胞凋亡活性

Objective To determine the change of expression level of Leptospira interrogans sph2 gene, and hemolytic and cell apoptosis-inducing activities of sphingomyelinase hemolysin Sph2. Methods Entire sph2 gene fragment was amplified by PCR from genomic DNA of L. Interrogans serovar serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae serovar Lai strain Lai, and sequenced after T-A cloning. Subsequently, a prokaryotic expression system of sph2 gene was constructed. The expression of target recombinant Sph2( rSph2 ) was examined by SDS-PAGE and the expressed rSph2 was extracted by Ni-NTA affinity chromatogaphy. The hemolytic activity of rSph2 was measured by hemolytic test in sheep blood agar plate and spectrophotometry-based hemoglobin measurement, and the apoptosis-inducing activity of rSph2 to murine mononuclear-macrophagelike cell line(J774A. 1) and hepatic cell line(IAR20) was determined by flow cytometry. A real-time fluorescence quantitative RT-PCR was applied to detect the change of sph2 mRNA levels before and after L. Interrogans strain Lai infecting J774A. 1 and IAR20 cells. Results The cloned sph2 gene had 100% sequence identity to the corresponding gene in GenBank. The constructed prokaryotic expression system was able to efficiently express rSph2. The rSph2 could lyse sheep erythrocytes in concentration-dependent pattern. 10μg/ml rSph2 could induce the apoptosis of J774A. 1 cells and IAR20 cells, and the peak apoptotic rates were 23.96% and 32.92%, respectively. The mRNA level of sph2 gene was significantly elevated within 0.5-2 h of L. Interrogans strain Lai infecting either J774A. 1 or IAR20 cells, and then the mRNA level was quickly descended. Conclusion The sph2 gene of L. Interrogans strain Lai has a transient expression when the microbe contacts host cells. rSph2 possesses activities of sheep erythrocyte lysis and inducing macrophage and hepatocyte apoptosis, indicating Sph2 as an important virulence factor during pathogenic process of Leptospira.     

Use of Luminescent Leptospira interrogans for Enumeration in Biological Assays

Rapid and reliable in vitro methods for the detection of pathogenic leptospires, such as Leptospira interrogans, are lacking. The present study investigated the use of luminescence to replace the existing enumeration techniques. Transposon TnSC189 was modified to incorporate the luxCDABE cassette from Photorhabdus luminescens and was used to construct luminescent Leptospira spp. There was a linear relationship between luminescence and cell number, with the theoretical detection limit being less than 10⁴ leptospires. A comparison of enumeration by a standard method (counting by dark-field microscopy) and enumeration by luminescence was conducted with luminescent L. interrogans. There was a good correlation between the two methods of enumeration (R² = 0.766), although variation in the luminescence early and late in growth phase reduced the degree of correlation. To demonstrate the utility of luminescence as a viability and cell number reporter, in vitro assays, including MIC determination, an extracellular matrix binding experiment, and a complement killing experiment, were conducted. In each case, the results obtained by luminescence matched those obtained by traditional means with high correlations (binding assay R² = 0.916, complement killing assay R² = 0.988). A strain expressing the luxCDABE transposon retained virulence in the hamster model of infection. Despite some variation in luminescence as a result of the growth phase or the particular assay conditions, enumeration by luminescence was found to be a quick, reliable, and highly sensitive method for the in vitro detection of leptospires that has the potential to replace more time-consuming methods of enumeration.The spirochete Leptospira interrogans causes widespread zoonosis, contracted through contact with contaminated water, soil, or animal urine. Disease syndromes can range from no symptoms and a mild influenza-like illness through to multiple-organ failure and death (3).Despite intensive research into the pathogenic mechanisms of L. interrogans, progress has been limited due to the practicalities of working with these bacteria. One significant technical difficulty is the quantitative detection of leptospires in vitro. Conventional bacterial enumeration methods are unsuitable due to the unusual features of Leptospira spp. A very slow rate of growth (Leptospira spp. take up to 4 weeks to form colonies on plates [1]) makes growth-dependent outputs such as CFU counts and minimal dilution slow and prone to overgrowth by contaminants. The unusual morphology of leptospires makes identification by light microscopy difficult, while a low maximum culture density makes estimation of the concentration by measurement of the optical density (OD) of limited use. Quantitative real-time PCR may be used to estimate the leptospiral cell number through the detection of chromosomal DNA (10), but this technique is time-consuming and expensive and does not distinguish live cells from dead cells. The current standard for the enumeration of leptospires involves counting by use of a Petroff-Hausser chamber under dark-field illumination (3). This process requires a trained operator, is time-consuming, and puts the operator at risk of eye strain. Furthermore, this technique is difficult in the presence of other diffracting material that may be present in the output of an experimental assay (e.g., cell debris) and is compromised by the autoagglutination of leptospires and the high degree of motility of some strains. New methods of enumeration of spirochetes are required, such as the recently described flow cytometry method for the enumeration of Treponema denticola, an oral spirochete that shares many of the difficult features found in Leptospira (16).To further complicate the study of L. interrogans, this pathogen has no replicating plasmids and genetic manipulation through mutagenesis is very difficult. Recently, an L. interrogans mutagenesis method was developed with a mariner transposon, TnSC189 (1, 12). This is currently the only efficient means for constructing defined leptospiral mutants. This method has been applied for widespread random mutagenesis of the bacterial chromosome (13), facilitating the identification of two virulence factors (14, 17) and the unexpected finding that the major outer membrane protein (LipL32) is not required for pathogenesis (15).Luminescent bacteria have previously been used for in vitro enumeration and viability reporting and for monitoring the progress of infection in vivo (8, 9). In the study described here, in the absence of replicating plasmids for L. interrogans, transposon TnSC189 was modified to incorporate the luxCDABE cassette from Photorhabdus luminescens (20). This construct was used to stably integrate luxCDABE into the chromosome, producing luminescent Leptospira interrogans isolates. Luminescence was found to be a highly efficient means for determining bacterial numbers and population viability.     

钩端螺旋体溶血素Sph2表达模式及诱导巨噬细胞和肝细胞凋亡活性

Objective To determine the change of expression level of Leptospira interrogans sph2 gene, and hemolytic and cell apoptosis-inducing activities of sphingomyelinase hemolysin Sph2. Methods Entire sph2 gene fragment was amplified by PCR from genomic DNA of L. Interrogans serovar serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae serovar Lai strain Lai, and sequenced after T-A cloning. Subsequently, a prokaryotic expression system of sph2 gene was constructed. The expression of target recombinant Sph2( rSph2 ) was examined by SDS-PAGE and the expressed rSph2 was extracted by Ni-NTA affinity chromatogaphy. The hemolytic activity of rSph2 was measured by hemolytic test in sheep blood agar plate and spectrophotometry-based hemoglobin measurement, and the apoptosis-inducing activity of rSph2 to murine mononuclear-macrophagelike cell line(J774A. 1) and hepatic cell line(IAR20) was determined by flow cytometry. A real-time fluorescence quantitative RT-PCR was applied to detect the change of sph2 mRNA levels before and after L. Interrogans strain Lai infecting J774A. 1 and IAR20 cells. Results The cloned sph2 gene had 100% sequence identity to the corresponding gene in GenBank. The constructed prokaryotic expression system was able to efficiently express rSph2. The rSph2 could lyse sheep erythrocytes in concentration-dependent pattern. 10μg/ml rSph2 could induce the apoptosis of J774A. 1 cells and IAR20 cells, and the peak apoptotic rates were 23.96% and 32.92%, respectively. The mRNA level of sph2 gene was significantly elevated within 0.5-2 h of L. Interrogans strain Lai infecting either J774A. 1 or IAR20 cells, and then the mRNA level was quickly descended. Conclusion The sph2 gene of L. Interrogans strain Lai has a transient expression when the microbe contacts host cells. rSph2 possesses activities of sheep erythrocyte lysis and inducing macrophage and hepatocyte apoptosis, indicating Sph2 as an important virulence factor during pathogenic process of Leptospira.     

钩端螺旋体溶血素Sph2表达模式及诱导巨噬细胞和肝细胞凋亡活性

目的 了解问号钩端螺旋体(简称钩体)感染细胞前后sph2基因表达水平变化,确定鞘磷脂酶类溶血素Sph2及诱导细胞凋亡的活性.方法 采用PCR从黄疸出血群赖型赖株钩体基因组DNA中扩增全长sph2基因片段,T-A克隆后测序.构建sph2基因原核表达系统,采用SDS-PAGE检查重组Sph2(rSph2)的表达情况,Ni-NTA亲和层析法提纯rSph2.采用绵羊血平板溶血试验及血红蛋白分光光度法测定rSph2的溶血活性.采用流式细胞术检测rSph2诱导小鼠单核-巨噬样细胞株J774A.1和肝细胞株IAR20凋亡的活性,实时荧光定量PCR检测赖株钩体感染J774A.1和IAR20细胞前后sph2基因mRNA水平变化.结果 与GenBank中sph2基因比较,所克隆的sph2基因序列相似性为100%.所构建的原核表达系统能高效表达rSph2.rSph2以浓度依赖方式溶解绵羊红细胞.10 μg/ml rSph2可诱导J774A.1和IAR20细胞凋亡,凋亡率峰值分别为23.96%和32.92%.赖株钩体感染J774A.1和IAR20细胞后0.5～2 h内sph2基因mRNA水平显著升高,2 h后mRNA水平迅速下降.结论 钩体sph2基因呈宿主细胞接触式瞬时表达.rSph2有溶解绵羊红细胞及诱导巨噬细胞和肝细胞凋亡的活性,因而Sph2是钩体致病过程中重要的毒力因子.