Kinase inhibitors in chronic myelogenous leukemia

The Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib mesylate launched the era of molecular targeted therapy and constitutes a milestone in oncology history. However, despite impressive cytogenetic response rates achieved with this agent in patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) in chronic phase, those with advanced-stage CML frequently obtain more modest responses that are in many instances of short duration. Several mechanisms of resistance to imatinib have been described among patients that develop clinical resistance to imatinib. Point mutations in the Bcr-Abl kinase domain that impair the ability of imatinib to inhibit the kinase activity represent the leading cause of resistance. Several approaches are being pursued to overcome these mutations. In addition, many other protein kinases implicated in signaling transduction downstream Bcr-Abl play critical roles in the pathogenesis of CML, thus representing potential therapeutic targets. Multiple compounds are being screened to identify inhibitors of these kinases. This article focuses on the current state of development of new kinase inhibitors for the therapy of CML.     

Stat3 contributes to resistance toward BCR-ABL inhibitors in a bone marrow microenvironment model of drug resistance

Imatinib mesylate is a potent, molecularly targeted therapy against the oncogenic tyrosine kinase BCR-ABL. Although imatinib mesylate has considerable efficacy against chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), advanced-stage CML patients frequently become refractory to this agent. The bone marrow is the predominant microenvironment of CML and is a rich source of both soluble factors and extracellular matrices, which may influence drug response. To address the influence of the bone marrow microenvironment on imatinib mesylate sensitivity, we used an in vitro bone marrow stroma model. Our data show culturing K562 cells, in bone marrow stroma-derived conditioned medium (CM), is sufficient to cause resistance to BCR-ABL inhibitors. Drug resistance correlated with increased pTyrStat3, whereas no increases in pTyrStat5 was noted. Moreover, resistance was associated with increased levels of the Stat3 target genes Bcl-xl, Mcl-1, and survivin. Finally, reducing Stat3 levels with small interfering RNA sensitized K562 cells cultured in CM to imatinib mesylate-induced cell death. Importantly, Stat3 dependency was specific for cells grown in CM, as reducing Stat3 levels in regular growth conditions had no effect on imatinib mesylate sensitivity. Together, these data support a novel mechanism of BCR-ABL-independent imatinib mesylate resistance and provides preclinical rationale for using Stat3-inhibitors to increase the efficacy of imatinib mesylate within the context of the bone marrow microenvironment.     

Dihydroartemisinin inhibits the Bcr/Abl oncogene at the mRNA level in chronic myeloid leukemia sensitive or resistant to imatinib

Due to the mutations of the Bcr/Abl oncogene that obstacle the binding of the protein with imatinib, the resistance to imatinib has developed in a significant portion of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patients. It stimulated the search for novel molecules for treatment of imatinib-resistance CML. Inhibiting the amplification of Bcr/Abl oncogene is believed to be a new effective strategy to override the imatinib resistance on CML cells. In present research, we demonstrated that dihydroartemisinin (DHA), a safe and effective antimalarial analog of artemisinin, could significantly inhibit the Bcr/Abl fusion gene at the mRNA level in CML cells sensitive or resistant to imatinib (including the primary CML cells with T315I mutation) and induce cell death. Moreover, dihydroartemisinin could also lead to the inhibition of the Bcr/Abl protein expression and tyrosine kinase activity, and strongly suppress on the downstream signals of Bcr/Abl, which included inhibition of tyrosine kinase activity of AKT and ERK, promotion of cytochrome c release from the mitochondria and the consequential activation of caspase-9/3 in imatinib-resistant CML cells. These results suggest for the first time that Dihydroartemisinin might be a potential novel drug candidate for treatment of imatinib-resistant CML and worthy of further study.     

Applying the discovery of the Philadelphia chromosome

The identification of the Philadelphia chromosome in cells from individuals with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) led to the recognition that the BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase causes CML. This in turn led to the development of imatinib mesylate, a clinically successful inhibitor of the BCR-ABL kinase. Incorporating the use of markers of BCR-ABL kinase inhibition into clinical trials led to the realization that imatinib-resistant kinase domain mutations are the major cause of relapse during imatinib therapy and the subsequent development of new inhibitors to treat CML patients. The development of imatinib validates an emerging paradigm in cancer, in which a tumor is defined by genetic abnormalities and effective therapies are developed that target events critical to the growth and survival of a specific tumor.     

Overview of second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors for patients with imatinib-resistant chronic myelogenous leukemia

Imatinib mesylate (Gleevec, Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover, NJ) has revolutionized the treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) with marked improvement in survival in all three phases--chronic, accelerated, and blast. Most patients with CML now receive imatinib, which produces complete cytogenetic response in more than 80% of patients. About 10% of patients who initially respond to imatinib subsequently develop resistance. Mechanisms of imatinib resistance in CML include amplification, mutations, and additional chromosomal aberration. To date, more than 30 mutations have been identified in imatinib-resistant CML. Dasatinib and AMN107, second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors, are highly effective therapies for patients with CML experiencing imatinib resistance and mutation and offer new options for patients who do not achieve an optimal response to imatinib therapy. Studies found that dasatinib and AMN107 form tighter bonds, overcoming imatinib resistance and producing complete hematologic and cytogenetic remissions. Long-term observations are needed to determine the effectiveness of the treatment. Primary care providers need to follow patients receiving first- or second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors because unforeseen toxicity may surface, requiring accurate assessment, evaluation, and management. Oncology nurses will be actively involved in the symptom management of patients. Providing guidelines for symptom management and advanced knowledge of specific test results for monitoring CML may increase positive outcomes.     

酪氨酸激酶抑制剂伊马替尼对K562细胞的DNA损伤修复功能的影响

目的 建立人类慢性粒细胞白血病(CML)细胞系K562细胞在伊马替尼(Imatinib mesylate)处理前、后的DNA损伤模型,探讨伊马替尼对K562细胞的DNA损伤修复功能的影响.方法 用噻唑蓝(MTT)法确定伊马替尼预处理K562细胞的浓度;用免疫印迹法(Western blot)检测伊马替尼处理后K562细胞BCR/ABL的磷酸化状态,以反映BCR-ABL酪氨酸激酶活性受抑制情况;用彗星实验检测不同浓度过氧化氢(H2O2)诱导的K562细胞、伊马替尼预处理K562细胞的DNA损伤模型;用彗星实验对各组细胞在DNA损伤后的修复进行动态观测.结果 MTT实验结果显示,伊马替尼预处理K562细胞的最佳终浓度为1 μmol/L,作用时间24 h;Western blot实验结果显示,该浓度的伊马替尼可有效抑制BCR/ABL融合蛋白第177位酪氨酸激酶磷酸化,密度比为0.100±0.018,与对照组(0.425±0.039)相比,降低了(77.11±5.59)%,差异有统计学意义(t=4.57,P＜0.05);彗星实验确定了各组细胞DNA损伤模型的建立条件,采用10 μmol/L终浓度的H2O2对K562细胞和伊马替尼预处理后K562细胞进行染毒,H2O2作用温度和时间为4℃、10 min.修复结果显示,经伊马替尼预处理的K562细胞修复时间为120 min,与未处理组修复时间60 min相比,前者DNA损伤修复时间明显延长(F=97.79,P＜0.05).结论 本研究建立了伊马替尼处理前、后的白血病K562细胞的DNA损伤模型,BCR/ABL融合蛋白的酪氨酸激酶抑制剂伊马替尼能减弱K562细胞的DNA损伤后修复能力.     

Stem Cell Transplantation in Patients With Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia: When Should It Be Used?

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation has been a cornerstone of therapy for chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) for more than 15 years and is still a standard treatment option for patients with CML. The advent of imatinib mesylate, an inhibitor of the molecular defect driving CML, the BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase, has rewritten treatment algorithms for this disease and has shifted focus away from allografting. Despite advances in stem cell transplantation, such as broader availability with the use of modified conditioning regimens, use of allografting has diminished. Also, the nearly universal patient exposure to imatinib or other kinase inhibitors before transplantation may affect the biology of the disease that is currently being treated with an allograft and ultimately may affect outcomes. Exceedingly high rates of meaningful and stable response with longer follow-up continue to drive enthusiasm for imatinib use, and understanding of resistance mechanisms has driven rapid investigation of second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors to address imatinib failure and suboptimal response. In most patients, imatinib reduces CML to a minimal residual disease state in which options to further deepen remission, such as immunotherapy, are sought; monitoring techniques and interpretation of response advance in parallel to meet demands; and uncertainty remains as a new natural history of CML is defined in an era of kinase inhibitor therapy. This review summarizes the state of transplant and nontransplant therapy for CML and discusses the decision making for patients with an aim to optimize the use of our best therapies for CML in an era of uncertainty.     

Advances and potential treatment for Philadelphia chromosome-positive adult acute lymphoid leukaemia

Philadelphia chromosome-positive (Ph+) acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) is the most common subtype of ALL in adults. Conventional chemotherapy-based approaches that are effective in other precursor B cell ALL cases have a poor chances of cure in patients with a Ph+ diagnosis. Therefore, allogeneic stem cell transplantation performed during the first remission is the recommended therapy. Recently, the availability of imatinib mesylate and other tyrosine kinase inhibitors and small molecules that affect the BCR/ABL signalling pathways has introduced a new therapeutic opportunity, and could change the treatment paradigm and prognosis for these patients. In this article, the results from clinical trials using imatinib in relapsed/refractory patients and as front-line therapy are described. In addition, preliminary experiences with novel tyrosine kinase inhibitors in imatinib-resistant Ph+ ALL are discussed.     

Acute renal failure secondary to imatinib mesylate treatment in prostate cancer

OBJECTIVE: To report a case of acute renal failure associated with the administration of imatinib mesylate. CASE SUMMARY: A 64-year-old man diagnosed with prostate cancer was enrolled in a Phase I trial of imatinib mesylate plus taxotere on a protocol that required a run-in period of imatinib mesylate alone. During therapy with imatinib mesylate, the patient developed acute renal failure, requiring hemodialysis. A renal biopsy revealed tubular vacuolization. Renal failure resolved with cessation of imatinib mesylate. DISCUSSION: Imatinib mesylate is a protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor that inhibits the BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase, the receptor tyrosine kinases for platelet-derived growth factor, and stem cell factor c-kit. Prostate cancer has been identified as a target for therapy with imatinib mesylate. This patient had no other confounding factors for the cause of the renal failure. An objective causality assessment determined that imatinib mesylate was the probable cause of the acute renal failure. The presence of a primary glomerular disease was excluded by biopsy. CONCLUSIONS: Imatinib mesylate-induced acute renal failure has now been linked to toxic effects on renal tubular cells in 3 cases. Renal function should be closely monitored during imatinib mesylate therapy.     

慢性髓系白血病急变期分子遗传学研究进展

9号和22号染色体相互易位产生Ph染色体及BCR-ABL融合基因,几乎在所有慢性髓系白血病（CML）出现,BCR-ABL编码的蛋白具有持续增高的酪氨酸激酶活性,使白血病细胞异常增殖。急变期是CML的晚期,在此期间常常出现其它附加染色体和分子的改变。大量研究表明,BCR-ABL基因与其他失调的基因共同作用并异常激活下游的信号传导通路,促进了疾病的进展。酪氨酸激酶抑制剂伊马替尼对大多数慢性期CML患者治疗效果显著。IRIS5年的临床试验显示：用伊马替尼治疗的98%患者达血液学完全缓解,92%患者达主要细胞遗传学缓解,87%患者达完全细胞遗传学缓解。然而,仍有少数慢性期和大多数进展期患者用伊马替尼治疗疗效欠佳。在耐药机制的研究中发现ABL激酶区点突变与临床耐药关系密切。第二代酪氨酸激酶抑制剂可改善伊马替尼耐药,本文就急性变的分子机制、伊马替尼耐药等做一综述。     

Skin and oral lesions associated to imatinib mesylate therapy

Introduction  Imatinib mesylate is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor used to treat chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) throughout all the phases of the disease. In most cases, this drug is well tolerated; however, some cases experience side effects. Results and discussion  Skin rashes and oral lesions are uncommon and appear to be dose-dependent. The authors report two cases of CML Ph⁺ in chronic phase patients who presented skin and oral lesions probably induced by imatinib therapy.     

靶向酪氨酸激酶的治疗在骨髓增殖性肿瘤中的应用研究进展

酪氨酸激酶在细胞增殖、分化及生存和凋亡等重要生命活动中起着关键作用,它们的异常与肿瘤的发生密切相关.随着酪氨酸激酶及其信号通路中的组成元件的异常在血液系统恶性疾病中不断被发现,对于酪氨酸激酶抑制剂在血液系统恶性疾病治疗中的应用越来越受关注.慢性髓系白血病治疗因BCR/ABL酪氨酸激酶抑制剂甲磺酸伊马替尼的出现而有了革命性的进展,但因耐药、耐受性及其他伴有酪氨酸激酶异常的血液系统恶性疾病的需要,它不断研发出许多新型的酪氨酸激酶抑制剂.应用甲磺酸伊马替尼的适应症现在也逐渐被扩大,包括伴有PDGFRA,PDGFRB或FGFR1嗜酸性细胞相关的髓系钟瘤,伴有c-Kit突变的胃间质瘤等.近来,JAK2激酶抑制剂也逐渐进入临床试验用于伴有JAK2 V617F突变的真性红细胞增多症、原发性骨髓纤维化、原发性血小板增多症.本文将时于酪氨酸激酶异常在骨髓增殖性肿瘤的特点,以及靶向酪氨酸激酶治疗的应用做一综述.     

Advances and potential treatment for Philadelphia chromosome-positive adult acute lymphoid leukaemia

Philadelphia chromosome-positive (Ph⁺) acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) is the most common subtype of ALL in adults. Conventional chemotherapy-based approaches that are effective in other precursor B cell ALL cases have a poor chances of cure in patients with a Ph⁺ diagnosis. Therefore, allogeneic stem cell transplantation performed during the first remission is the recommended therapy. Recently, the availability of imatinib mesylate and other tyrosine kinase inhibitors and small molecules that affect the BCR/ABL signalling pathways has introduced a new therapeutic opportunity, and could change the treatment paradigm and prognosis for these patients. In this article, the results from clinical trials using imatinib in relapsed/refractory patients and as front-line therapy are described. In addition, preliminary experiences with novel tyrosine kinase inhibitors in imatinib-resistant Ph⁺ ALL are discussed.     

慢性髓系白血病细胞中SphK-1／S1P信号通路的初步研究

慢性髓系白血病（CML）是一种以髓系细胞受累为主的多能造血干细胞的克隆性疾病。为探讨SphK-1／S1P信号通路元件在CML细胞中的表达情况，研究P210^bcr/abl是否涉及到SphK-1／S1P信号通路，首先采用RT—PCR检测bcr／abl阳性的K562细胞和bcr／abl阳性的原代CML细胞中SphK-1和S1P受体mRNA的表达.进一步利用P210^bcr/abl特异抑制剂甲磺酸伊马替尼处理bcr／abl阳性的K562细胞和CML原代细胞，然后通过^32P-ATP掺入法测定细胞内SphK-1的酶活性。结果表明：K562细胞经2．5μmol／L甲磺酸伊马替尼处理0．5,2,6,24和48小时后，对SphK-1活性抑制强度分别为0．007％、38．9％、34．6％、28．1％和76．1％；CML原代细胞在使用2．5μmol／L甲磺酸伊马替尼处理后SphK-1活性较对照下降（16．8—41．9）％。结论：CML细胞中存在SphK-1和S1P的表达，P210^bcr/abl具有激活SphK-1的作用。     

New insights into small‐molecule inhibitors of Bcr‐Abl

Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative disease associated with a defined genetic abnormality, the Bcr‐Abl fusion gene on the Philadelphia chromosome that expresses the constitutively activated tyrosine kinase (TK) Bcr‐Abl. This enzyme leads to the malignant transformation of primitive hematopoietic cells and to the consequent disease. The central role of Bcr‐Abl in the pathogenesis of CML culminated in the discovery of imatinib (an ATP‐competitive inhibitor), which is currently the frontline therapy for CML. Unfortunately, the initial enthusiasm generated by its high response rate has been dampened by the development of resistance, especially in the advanced phases of CML. To overcome imatinib resistance, several second‐generation ATP‐competitive inhibitors endowed with increased potency against imatinib‐resistant mutants have been developed: the dual Src/Abl inhibitor dasatinib and the Abl inhibitor nilotinib have been recently approved by US‐FDA for the treatment of imatinib‐resistant CML, and many other compounds are currently in clinical trial. Although second‐generation TK inhibitors have shown to be clinically effective against most of the imatinib‐resistant mutants, to date poor results have been obtained in the treatment of the Bcr‐Abl T315I mutant. In this review we will report the most interesting second‐generation Abl and dual Src/Abl inhibitors recently entered in clinical trial, but also the new ATP‐competitive and uncompetitive inhibitors published in the last few years, focusing on their chemical structure, mechanism of action, and structure–activity relationship. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Med Res Rev, 31, No. 1, 1–41, 2010     

Dasatinib treatment for imatinib resistant or intolerant patients with chronic myeloid leukaemia

Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) is a genetically associated malignancy of haematopoietic stem cells, characterized by a t(9;22) translocation that forms the Philadelphia chromosome and creates a novel fusion gene, BCR-ABL. Treatment with molecular-targeted therapy is usually initiated with imatinib, an inhibitor of BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase. Imatinib resistance is, however, observed in some CML patients, especially in those with advanced disease. Through computerized literature searches, a systematic analysis was conducted to examine the efficacy and benefits of dasatinib therapy for imatinib resistant or intolerant CML patients in the chronic phase (CP), accelerated phase (AP) and fatal blast crisis phase (BC). In terms of major haematological and cytogenetic responses, this meta-analysis showed no significant differences in dasatinib treatment between myeloid BC-CML and lymphoid BC-CML patients with imatinib resistance or intolerance. Dasatinib therapy was, however, significantly more effective in improving major haematological and cytogenetic responses for CP-CML patients than for AP-CML patients with imatinib resistance or intolerance.     

慢性髓细胞白血病BCR/ABL1突变克隆演化和治疗策略

伊马替尼的应用使很多慢性髓细胞白血病(chronic myeloid leukemia,CML)患者获得了长期生存,但是CML的BCR-ABL1融合基因激酶区突变(kinase domain mutation,KDM)会造成耐药.KDM有多种类型,不同类型是随机出现的.带有不同KDM特征的白血病克隆有一定的演变规律.在伊马替尼用药期间,耐药程度较高的突变细胞容易发展为优势克隆.建议在治疗伊马替尼耐药的CML时,除了努力发展下一代酪氨酸激酶抑制剂以外,还可考虑用传统药物来辅助治疗.     

慢性髓系白血病DNA依赖蛋白激酶催化亚基基因的研究

本研究旨在探讨髓系粒细胞白血病（CML）的DNA依赖蛋白激酶催化亚基（DNA-PKcs）基因表达水平、调控机制及其在CML急性变中的作用。用半定量RT-PCR、Western blot方法分别检测62例CML患者及K562细胞的DNA-PKcs mRNA和DNA-PKcs蛋白表达,并与23例正常人作对照;对26例接受同种异基因外周血干细胞移植（allo-PBSCT）及4例使用伊马替尼治疗的CML患者用RT-PCR、Western blot方法分别动态检测bcr-abl mRNA和DNA-PKcs蛋白表达水平;用伊马替尼体外作用CML患者的单个核细胞（MNC）及K562细胞后,用RT-PCR、Western blot方法分别检测DNA-PKcs mRNA和DNA-PKcs蛋白表达及bcr-abl融合蛋白的酪氨酸磷酸化水平。结果表明：与正常人比较,CML患者及K562细胞的DNA-PKcs蛋白表达量明显降低（P〈0.05）;26例allo-PBSCT及4例使用伊马替尼治疗的CML患者,DNA-PKcs蛋白表达量随着bcr-abl mRNA表达量的降低而升高;伊马替尼体外作用于CML患者MNC及K562细胞后,DNA-PKcs蛋白表达量随着bcr-abl融合蛋白酪氨酸磷酸化水平的降低而升高。结论：bcr-abl融合基因通过转录后机制下调DNA-PKcs蛋白的表达;DNA-PKcs蛋白表达下降可能是CML急性变的机制之一。     

Growth Arrest of BCR-ABL Positive Cells with a Sequence-Specific Polyamide-Chlorambucil Conjugate

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is characterized by the presence of a constitutively active Abl kinase, which is the product of a chimeric BCR-ABL gene, caused by the genetic translocation known as the Philadelphia chromosome. Imatinib, a selective inhibitor of the Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase, has significantly improved the clinical outcome of patients with CML. However, subsets of patients lose their response to treatment through the emergence of imatinib-resistant cells, and imatinib treatment is less durable for patients with late stage CML. Although alternative Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been developed to overcome drug resistance, a cocktail therapy of different kinase inhibitors and additional chemotherapeutics may be needed for complete remission of CML in some cases. Chlorambucil has been used for treatment of B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia, non-Hodgkin's and Hodgkin's disease. Here we report that a DNA sequence-specific pyrrole-imidazole polyamide-chlorambucil conjugate, 1R-Chl, causes growth arrest of cells harboring both unmutated BCR-ABL and three imatinib resistant strains. 1R-Chl also displays selective toxicities against activated lymphocytes and a high dose tolerance in a murine model.