Clinical outcomes after endoscopic sinus surgery

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Chronic rhinosinusitis continues to present diagnostic and therapeutic challenges for clinicians. Recently, attention has been focused on reliable and valid measures of outcomes for many sinonasal diseases. As a significant fraction of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis will come to endoscopic sinus surgery, there has been a dedicated focus on determining objective clinical outcomes after medical and surgical treatment for CRS. This has been aided by validated instruments for measuring both symptom outcomes and quality of life after endoscopic sinus surgery. RECENT FINDINGS: Recent studies have demonstrated that endoscopic sinus surgery provides statistically and clinically significant improvements in most sinonasal symptoms. These benefits are maintained more than 1 year after surgery. In addition, the significant adverse effects of chronic rhinosinusitis on quality of life can be reversed with appropriate endoscopic sinus surgery. Certain sub-populations do not fare as well with endoscopic sinus surgery, however; adjunctive medical management is required to maintain symptomatic and quality-of-life improvements for patients with nasal polyposis. Unfortunately, paranasal sinus computed tomography scan findings do not predict symptomatic or quality-of-life improvements after endoscopic sinus surgery. SUMMARY: With reliable objective evidence of the health benefits of endoscopic sinus surgery, patients should be considered for such surgery after failure of medical management. Further work is required to characterize outcomes for sub-populations, and to stage and select patients who will derive appropriate benefit from endoscopic sinus surgery.     

Fluticasone propionate aqueous nasal spray does not influence the recurrence rate of chronic rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps 1 year after functional endoscopic sinus surgery

BACKGROUND: Local corticosteroids are widely used in the treatment of nasal polyps and chronic rhinosinusitis both before and after nasal surgery. Their efficacy after functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) has not been fully established by placebo-controlled trials. OBJECTIVE: This double-blind placebo-controlled randomized study was performed in order to investigate whether fluticasone propionate aqueous nasal spray (FPANS) reduces the recurrence rate of nasal polyps and chronic rhinosinusitis during the first year after FESS. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The trial looked at 162 patients aged 18 years and older requiring FESS for chronic rhinosinusitis or nasal polyps. After FESS combined with peri-operative systemic corticosteroids, patients were randomized and given FPANS 400 microg b.i.d., FPANS 800 microg b.i.d. or placebo b.i.d. for the duration of 1 year. Patients were withdrawn from the trial (but still included in the study for statistical purposes) if there were recurrent or persistent diseases, defined as progressive regrowth of nasal polyps, recurrent signs and symptoms of chronic sinusitis combined with abnormalities on computed tomography scan and persistent complaints for at least 2 months after FESS. RESULTS: A significant reduction of symptoms was seen after FESS. After 1 year, 46 patients had been withdrawn from the trial because of recurrent diseases and 32 patients because of persistent symptoms. No differences in the number of patients withdrawn because of recurrent or persistent diseases were found between the patients treated with FPANS and patients treated with placebo. We were also unable to find a positive effect of FPANS compared with placebo in several subgroups such as patients with nasal polyps, high score at FESS or no previous sinus surgery. CONCLUSION: This placebo-controlled study does not show that treatment with FPANS up to 1 year after FESS had a positive effect compared with placebo.     

鼻内镜手术对复发性鼻窦炎患者临床症状影响

目的 探讨鼻内镜手术在复发性鼻窦炎患者中的临床症状的影响。方法 选择2017年4月~2018年2月入院治疗的复发性鼻窦炎患者70例,采用数字随机法分为对照组和观察组,各35例。对照组采用经鼻外径路手术治疗,观察组采用鼻内镜手术治疗,采用视觉疼痛模拟评分、鼻窦CT Lund Mackay评分及鼻内镜Lund-Kennedy评分对两组手术前、手术后疼痛及效果进行评估;记录并统计两组手术后鼻中隔和下鼻甲粘连、下颌窦开口狭窄、眶周软组织淤血发生率,比较两组临床疗效及安全性。结果 观察组手术后VAS评分（1.27±0.31）分、鼻窦CT Lund Mackay评分（6.82±1.28）分、鼻内镜Lund-Kennedy评分（5.98±1.21）分,均低于对照组VAS评分（3.43±0.46）分、鼻窦CT Lund Mackay评分（9.41±1.45）分、鼻内镜Lund-Kennedy评分（7.86±1.89）分,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）;观察组手术后鼻中隔和下鼻甲粘连、下颌窦开口狭窄、眶周软组织淤血发生率为5.71%,低于对照组的42.86%,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.05）。结论 将鼻内镜手术用于复发性鼻窦炎患者中有助于减轻患者疼痛,改善患者症状,并发症发生率较低。     

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery improved asthma symptoms as well as PEFR and olfaction in patients with nasal polyposis

Background:  Nasal polyposis is a disease known to be associated with asthma. The management is anti-inflammatory, with topical and oral corticosteroids as the first-line treatment. The effect of surgical treatment on lower airway inflammation has not been sufficiently studied.
Aim:  The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) as well as fluticasone proprionate nasal drops (FPND) 400 μg b.i.d. on nasal and lower airway parameters in asthmatics with nasal polyposis.
Methods:  This was a prospective 21-week study of 68 patients with asthma and nasal polyposis, on the benefits of FESS on nasal '(butanol test, subjective olfaction, peak nasal inspiratory flow, congestion, rhinorrhoea, and polyp score)', and on the lower airway parameters (dyspnea, cough, mean daily peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), and lung function tests). It also included a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled 14 weeks phase on FPND.
Results:  Functional endoscopic sinus surgery significantly improved mean asthma symptom scores and daily PEFR and all nasal parameters including subjective and objective olfaction tests. This is the first study that shows the benefits of FESS on butanol tests in patients with nasal polyposis. We found no significant difference between topical treatment with FPND or placebo in the nasal or lower airway variables.
Conclusion:  Functional endoscopic sinus surgery improved nasal and asthma symptoms in patients with nasal polyposis. Functional endoscopic sinus surgery could be considered early in the natural course of nasal polyposis with concomitant asthma, as well as a second-line treatment in nasal polyposis patients with a reduced sense of smell. The potential benefits of FPND 400 μg b.i.d. were probably overshadowed by FESS.     

The many faces of atypical sinusitis.

The physician must be alert to the possibility of unsuspected sinusitis when evaluating a patient with chronic cough, sore throat, fever of unknown origin, supraglottitis, pneumonia, or headache. This article presents four cases in which atypical or asymptomatic sinusitis was discovered that could have caused significant or potentially life-threatening complications. In each case, the sinusitis was initially unsuspected. A complete nasal evaluation is warranted following decongestion of the nasal cavity when conditions are present. A screening sinus computed tomography scan may be indicated when sinusitis is strongly suspected even in the absence of typical clinical symptoms. Exact identification of the organism causing the infection may require sinus aspirate or tissue culture.     

Nasal and sinus endoscopy for medical management of resistant rhinosinusitis, including postsurgical patients

Nasal endoscopy has been practiced by allergists since the early 1980s; however, allergists in general have not embraced endoscopic evaluation of patients with sinus disease, either before or after surgery. Allergists are in a unique position to render medical (as opposed to surgical) care of patients with sinusitis. There has been a growing realization that endoscopy is a valuable procedure for the evaluation and medical treatment of patients with difficult sinusitis. This has resulted in the need for a resource to allow allergists to understand the nature of endoscopic findings in patients with sinusitis, either preoperatively or postoperatively. This article introduces the findings at endoscopy that are common in patients with sinusitis, including those that may be seen after surgery. The findings include perforation of the septum, retained secretions, small surgical ostium caused by postoperative ostial stenosis, previous Caldwell Luc procedure, recirculation of mucus, hyperplastic nasal disease, synechiae, recurrent disease in previously unaffected sinuses, empty nose syndrome, frontal sinus disease, dental disease, and other, more complicated entities.     

内镜经泪前隐窝入路治疗上颌窦前内下壁病变

目的　探讨鼻内镜下经泪前隐窝径路治疗上颌窦病变的临床效果。 方法　回顾性分析了2008年1月~2018年1月三家医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科收治的采用内镜辅助下经泪前隐窝入路治疗的各种上颌窦病变患者67例的临床资料。 结果　上颌窦内下壁囊肿20例,上颌窦内下壁息肉6例,内翻性乳头状瘤2例,真菌球性鼻-鼻窦炎23例,变态反应性真菌性鼻-鼻窦炎13例,慢性侵袭性真菌性鼻-鼻窦炎1例。所有患者术后定期随访半年以上未见复发。 结论　鼻内镜下泪前隐窝入路能够充分显露上颌窦腔,彻底切除上颌窦内的病变,手术操作方便,能够有效治疗上颌窦各种良性病变,如有明显的泪前隐窝及齿槽隐窝存在,可作为上颌窦前内下壁病变的首选手术入路。     

内镜经泪前隐窝入路治疗上颌窦前内下壁病变

目的　探讨鼻内镜下经泪前隐窝径路治疗上颌窦病变的临床效果。 方法　回顾性分析了2008年1月~2018年1月三家医院耳鼻咽喉头颈外科收治的采用内镜辅助下经泪前隐窝入路治疗的各种上颌窦病变患者67例的临床资料。 结果　上颌窦内下壁囊肿20例,上颌窦内下壁息肉6例,内翻性乳头状瘤2例,真菌球性鼻-鼻窦炎23例,变态反应性真菌性鼻-鼻窦炎13例,慢性侵袭性真菌性鼻-鼻窦炎1例。所有患者术后定期随访半年以上未见复发。 结论　鼻内镜下泪前隐窝入路能够充分显露上颌窦腔,彻底切除上颌窦内的病变,手术操作方便,能够有效治疗上颌窦各种良性病变,如有明显的泪前隐窝及齿槽隐窝存在,可作为上颌窦前内下壁病变的首选手术入路。     

真菌性蝶窦炎的临床特征及手术疗效分析

目的　探讨真菌性蝶窦炎的临床及影像学特征,评估鼻内镜手术治疗该病的临床效果。 方法　回顾性分析2008年1月~2018年1月3家医院收治的67例真菌性鼻窦炎侵及蝶窦患者的临床资料,总结其临床表现及影像学特点。所有患者接受鼻内镜下蝶窦开放、病灶清除术,术后随访6~12月,评估手术疗效,主观症状采用视觉模拟评分（VAS）,客观体征采用Lund-Kennedy评分,比较术前与术后3、6、12个月的差异。 结果　本组67例均经1次手术痊愈,术后无严重并发症发生。VAS评分术前为（8.34±1.36）分,术后持续下降,术后3个月为（2.45±1.06）分,术后6个月为（1.65±1.24）分,术后12个月为（1.21±0.66）分。Lund-Kennedy评分术前为（8.42±1.16）分,术后3、6、12个月分别下降为（2.56±0.86）、（1.74±1.16）、（1.15±0.76）分。两种评分术前与术后差异均有统计学意义（P<0.001）。 结论　真菌性蝶窦炎以头痛为主要症状,无特殊规律性,内镜检查可见蝶筛隐窝黏膜水肿、窦口有干酪样分泌物及黏脓性分泌物,CT影像特征为蝶窦腔内不均匀的软组织密度影,其内有高密度斑片状钙化影,窦壁骨质有硬化增厚。根据不同范围的病变,采用全麻下鼻内镜或鼻内镜辅助开放手术治疗真菌性蝶窦炎是一种简便、安全、有效的方法。     

Schizophyllum commune sinusitis in an immunocompetent host

Schizophyllum commune is widely distributed in the nature, but it rarely causes human infection. We have isolated this mould in a 46-year-old immunocompetent, non-diabetic patient with chronic sinusitis, previously treated with multiple antibiotics and topical steroid nasal drops with no response. Materials obtained from the nasal sinus during the endoscopic surgery, on KOH mount and histopathological study revealed broad septed hyaline hyphae. Growth on the Sabouraud's dextrose agar and potato dextrose agar produced white moulds with microscopic and macroscopic characters of S. commune. Till date there are few reports of S. commune sinusitis in immunocompetent individuals Worldwide. This is the first reported case in India to the best of our knowledge.     

Anatomic variations of the paranasal sinus area in pediatric patients with chronic sinusitis

Endoscopic endonasal surgery has been performed in children. Therefore, we need to know the precise anatomy and anatomic variations of the lateral nasal wall. This is important in order to achieve better surgical results and avoid complications. We also need to know the relationship between the anatomic variations and sinonasal disease. For the purpose of this study we assessed the anatomic variations of the lateral nasal wall and the association of these variations with chronic sinusitis in children. Forty-seven children with chronic sinus disease were included in the study. There were 25 female and 22 male patients with ages ranging from 2 to 16 years (mean 10.5+/-3.8 years). On coronal and axial computed tomographic (CT) scans, the anatomic variations of the lateral nasal wall and sinusitis were assessed. A pneumatized middle concha (MC) was the most common anatomic variation, followed by pneumatization of the superior concha (SC), Haller cell and agger nasi cell. Secondary MC, large ethmoidal bulla, maxillary sinus hypoplasia, Onodi cell, and uncinate process pneumatization were relatively rare. Maxillary sinusitis was the most common sinus infection, followed by ethmoidal, sphenoidal and frontal sinusitis in that order. There was no significant relationship between the sinusitis and anatomic variations except for some minor associations. In conclusion, anatomic variations in the lateral nasal wall are common in children. Local, systemic or environmental factors appear to be more important in pediatric sinusitis than the anatomic variations. Due to the absence of a definitive relationship between the anatomic variations and sinus disease, aggressive surgical interventions should be avoided while performing endonasal endoscopic surgery in the children.     

Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis caused by Neoscytalidium dimidiatum: A case report: Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis due to Neoscytalidium dimidiatum

Neoscytalidium dimidiatum is a rare dematiaceous fungus that was first described in 1916 as Dothiorella mangiferae. From the standpoint of epidemiology and therapy, early detection of fungal rhinosinusitis (FRS), the causative agents, and their associated risk factors can improve the therapeutic outcome and decrease the mortality rates among patients. In this study, we report a 34-year-old Iranian female patient with allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), who presented to our facility with an 8-year history of chronic fungal sinusitis, drug-resistant asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, post-nasal discharge, nasal obstruction, nasal polyposis, and anemia. The patient was subjected to diagnostic nasal endoscopy and computed tomography (CT) scan of paranasal sinuses, as well as routine, complementary mycological, and molecular methods, which confirmed the diagnosis of allergic fungal rhinosinusitis in patients with ABPA. Neoscytalidium dimidiatum was isolated from the sinus of the patient. Results of in vitro susceptibility tests indicated that the case isolate was susceptible to amphotericin B and itraconazole at concentrations which are commonly achieved in patients receiving recommended dosages for invasive mycoses (0.25 to 0.75 mg/kg of body weight daily for amphotericin B and 100 to 400 mg daily for itraconazole) and resistant in vitro to caspofungin, voriconazole, and posaconazole. The patient was successfully treated with amphotericin B / itraconazole + postoperative oral corticosteroids (OCS). Neoscytalidium dimidiatum infection should be considered as a possible additional factor in the etiology of AFRS, especially in immunocompromised patients.     

Clinical features and treatments of odontogenic sinusitis

Purpose

The aim of this study was to investigate how clinical features such as sex, age, etiologic factors, and presenting symptoms of odontogenic sinusitis are differentiated from other types of sinusitis. Also, this study was designed to find methods for reducing the incidence of odontogenic sinusitis.

Materials and Methods

A retrospective chart analysis was completed on twenty-seven patients with odontogenic sinusitis. They were all treated at Kangbuk Samsung Hospital between February 2006 and August 2008. The study protocol and informed consent forms were approved by the institutional review boards for human beings at Kangbuk Samsung Hospital.

Results

Ten patients (37.0%) had dental implant related complications and 8 (29.6%) had dental extraction related complications. Unilateral purulent nasal discharge was the most common symptom (66.7%). The therapeutic modality included transnasal endoscopic sinus surgery in 19 (70.4%) patients, and a Caldwell-Luc operation in two (7.4%) patients.

Conclusion

In our study, there was no significant difference in the incidence between genders. The average age of the patients was 42.9 years. The incidence was highest in the fourth decade. There were no significant differences between the symptoms of odontogenic sinusitis and that of other types of sinusitis. However, almost all of the patients with odontogenic sinusitis had unilateral symptoms. Iatrogenic causes, which include dental implants and dental extractions, were the most common etiologic factors related to the development of odontogenic sinusitis. Therefore, a preoperative consultation between a rhinologist and a dentist prior to the dental procedure should be able to reduce the incidence of odontogenic sinusitis.     

A randomized controlled study evaluating medical treatment versus surgical treatment in addition to medical treatment of nasal polyposis

BACKGROUND: Controlled prospective studies are needed to determine whether surgical treatment in fact has an effect additive to that of medical treatment of nasal polyposis. OBJECTIVE: We sought to compare the effect of medical treatment versus combined surgical and medical treatment on olfaction, polyp score, and symptoms in nasal polyposis. METHODS: Thirty-two patients with nasal polyposis and symmetrical nasal airways were randomized to unilateral endoscopic sinus surgery after pretreatment with oral prednisolone for 10 days and local nasal budesonide bilaterally for 1 month. Postoperatively, patients were given local nasal steroids (budesonide). Patients were evaluated with nasal endoscopy, symptom scores, and olfactory thresholds. They were followed for 12 months. RESULTS: The sense of smell was improved by the combination of local and oral steroids. Surgery had no additional effect. Symptom scores improved significantly with medical treatment alone, but surgery had additional beneficial effects on nasal obstruction and secretion. After surgery, the polyp score decreased significantly on the operated side but remained the same on the unoperated side. Twenty-five percent of the patients were willing to undergo an operation also on the unoperated side at the end of the study. CONCLUSIONS: Medical treatment seems to be sufficient to treat most symptoms of nasal polyposis. When hyposmia is the primary symptom, no additional benefit seems to be gained from surgical treatment. If nasal obstruction is the main problem after steroid treatment, surgical treatment is indicated. Selection of those who will benefit from surgery should be based on the patient's symptoms and not on the examiner's polyp score.     

Allergic fungal sinusitis in children.

BACKGROUND: Allergic fungal sinusitis (AFS) has been characterized in adults presenting with chronic sinusitis. Rare reports allude to a similar disease in children. OBJECTIVE: To characterize the features of AFS in children. METHODS: Children referred to otolaryngology clinics at Arkansas and LeBonheur Children's Hospitals for chronic sinusitis during a 12-year period were studied. This retrospective analysis reviews the following: clinical presentation, laboratory evaluations, radiographic and pathologic findings, and surgical intervention. Twenty patients (age range, 7-18 years; mean age, 12.5 years; median age, 16 years) met previously published criteria for AFS. Thirteen patients were male and 7 were female. Thirteen were African American and 7 were white. RESULTS: Presentation at diagnosis included the following: atopy (n = 20), nasal symptoms (n = 20), recurrent sinusitis (n = 18), nasal polyps (n = 18), recurrent headaches (n = 12), asthma (n = 11), proptosis (n = 10), and ocular symptoms (n = 10). All had radiographic evidence of sinusitis and allergy to fungal organisms. IgE levels were elevated in 8 of 9 patients, and 10 of 15 patients had eosinophilia. Surgical specimens demonstrated allergic mucin (n = 11), Charcot-Leyden crystals (n = 2), hyphae or fungal debris (n = 9), and fungal growth (n = 17). All patients underwent endoscopic sinus surgery, with 11 requiring multiple surgical procedures. Postoperatively, 19 patients received intranasal and oral steroids, and all had nasal saline washes. Eleven patients (9 who had undergone multiple surgical procedures) were treated with immunotherapy. Relapse was seen in 55% of patients at 1 year of follow-up. CONCLUSION: AFS presents with a higher incidence of proptosis in children when compared with adults. Typically, AFS occurs in atopic children with refractory sinus disease, requiring a high index of suspicion for evaluation and aggressive treatment.     

Wound healing after paranasal sinus surgery: neutrophilic inflammation influences the outcome

AIMS: After failure of medical treatment, functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) remains the best treatment for chronic sinusitis (CS) and nasal polyposis (NP). The precise mechanisms involved in wound healing after sinus surgery remain unclear. The aim of this study was to explore systematically the different histomorphological processes and cell populations involved in the wound repair of the paranasal mucosa. METHODS AND RESULTS: Biopsy specimens from patients operated on for CS and NP were collected 1, 2 and 6 months after surgery and compared with baseline and control specimens. A pathologist blinded to biopsy status evaluated the haematoxylin/eosin-stained sections for oedema, fibrosis and inflammatory reaction, and the immunohistochemical preparations for epithelial replication, myofibroblasts, macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils. Samples from NP showed significantly more oedema than those from CS. At baseline, oedema showed a significant correlation with macrophages, neutrophils and eosinophils, while fibrosis was inversely correlated with neutrophils. During healing, after a short increase at month 1, oedema decreased. Fibrosis and myofibroblasts showed an inverse relationship. Finally, during the postoperative period, both macrophages and neutrophils were increased when compared with controls. CONCLUSIONS: The severity of the neutrophilic inflammation appears to influence the formation of fibrosis during wound repair after sinus surgery.     

影像导航系统在鼻内镜手术中的应用

目的 总结影像导航技术在鼻内镜手术中的应用经验。方法 回顾性分析本院2007年5月至2010年9月采用美敦力Stealth Station LandmarX导航系统实施鼻内镜手术的患者33例（导航组）,包括慢性鼻窦炎、鼻息肉21例,孤立性蝶窦炎4例,额窦炎3例,鼻内翻性乳头状瘤2例,上颌窦骨瘤1例,鼻窦骨性纤维结构不良...     

Nasal polyposis and its impact on quality of life: comparison between the effects of medical and surgical treatments

BACKGROUND: Nasal polyposis (NP) is not a life-threatening disorder but may have a great impact on the quality of life (QoL). The objective of this study: (i) to investigate the health burden incurred by NP compared with the Spanish general population using the Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36) questionnaire; (ii) to compare the QoL outcome after medical or surgical treatment; and (iii) to assess and compare the effect of medical and surgical treatment on nasal symptoms. METHODS: About 109 patients with nasal polyps were included. Fifty-three patients were randomly allocated to receive oral prednisone for 2 weeks and 56 to undergo endoscopic sinus surgery. All patients administered intranasal budesonide for 12 months. Patients were evaluated for nasal symptoms, polyp size, and QoL. RESULTS: In comparison with the Spanish general population, patients with NP had worse scores on all SF-36 domains except for physical functioning. Nonasthmatic patients with NP had better QoL than asthmatic patients with NP on role physical functioning, body pain, and vitality (P <0.05). At 6 and 12 months, a significant improvement on all of SF-36 domains was observed after both medical and surgical treatment reaching the levels of general population (P <0.05). Nasal symptoms and polyp size improved after both medical and surgical treatment at 6 and 12 months (P <0.05). CONCLUSION: These results suggest that NP has considerable impact on a patient's QoL and that both medical and surgical treatment led to similar effects in improving QoL.     

Les sinusites aspergillaires : à propos de trois cas dans l’hôpital de Sfax,Tunisie

Among the non invasive fungal sinus diseases, fungus ball has been increasingly reported and large published series have allowed better characterization of the disease and the treatment strategies in immunocompetent people. We report three cases of aspergillosis sinusitis diagnosed in our hospital. This fungal ball occurred in two men and one immunocompetent woman with a chronic sinusitis. Dental care by zinc oxide was found in one patient. The endoscopy and computed tomography have viewed training polypoides bridging the maxillary sinus only in the first case and the frontal sinus and ethmoid in the second case. A multi location has been found in the third case with achieving the ethmoid on both sides of the right maxillary sinus, right frontal sinus and sphenoidal sinus. The mycological and anatomopathological exam showed fungal hyphae but not invasion in all cases. Aspergillus flavus has been isolated in the third case. All the patients had only surgical treatment without antifungal. No recurrence was noted.DiscussionEndodontic treatment on maxillary teeth with zinc constitutes a strong risk factor for sinus fungus ball. However, the clinical symptoms may be expressive particularly in multisinus localisation, rarely reported. Functional endoscopic sinus surgery is the gold standard for treatment and antifungal therapy is unnecessary.     

Medical treatment of allergic fungal sinusitis.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: This review of allergic fungal sinusitis (AFS) will enable the reader to (1) differentiate AFS from the other forms of fungal sinusitis, (2) understand AFS pathophysiology, (3) recognize AFS clinical presentation, (4) prepare an effective treatment and follow-up strategy, and (5) avoid diagnostic and treatment pitfalls. DATA SOURCES: All English language MEDLINE articles that cross-referenced allergy, fungal, and sinusitis from 1983-present. Other MESH words referenced included: antibodies, fungal; fungus diseases; IgE; spores, fungal; rhinosinusitis. Additional referenced articles, published abstracts, and conference proceedings were also utilized. STUDY SELECTION: All case reports, studies, and review articles. RESULTS: Allergic fungal sinusitis is a distinct form of non-invasive fungal sinusitis. It is under-diagnosed, and incidence varies by region. Dematiaceous fungi predominate. In the southwestern United States, Bipolaris spicifera is the most common cause. Patients present with nasal polyps, rhinosinusitis, and occasionally proptosis. CT scans show hypertrophic sinusitis and often hyperattenuating allergic mucin within the sinus cavities. Extra-sinus extension of disease is common. Surgical histopathology shows eosinophilic-lymphocytic mucosal inflammation and inspissated allergic mucin containing non-invasive fungal hyphae. All patients are atopic and have positive allergy skin tests to the AFS organism. Total serum IgE levels are usually elevated. AFS immunopathophysiology is analogous to allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Treatment requires surgery, postoperative oral corticosteroids (OCS), and aggressive allergy management including allergen immunotherapy. Oral corticosteroids reduce disease activity and forestall the need for recurrent sinus surgery. Postoperative changes in total serum IgE mirror the clinical status and may predict disease recurrence. Patients should be cooperatively followed by the medical specialist and surgeon because early sinus surgery for recurrence, together with aggressive medical management, gives the best outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Allergic fungal sinusitis is a new allergic disorder with recognizable clinical and histopathologic findings. Treatment requires aggressive allergy management, postoperative OCS, monitoring of total serum IgE, and medical/surgical co-management.