N-乙酰天门冬氨酰谷氨酸及其肽酶抑制剂在药物成瘾治疗中的作用

<正>从前额皮层(PFC)投射到伏隔核(NAc)的谷氨酸能神经元可塑性改变被认为是药物成瘾以及复吸的神经生物学基础之一。N-乙酰天门冬氨酰谷氨酸(N-acetylaspartylglutamate,NAAG)是一种在哺乳动物中枢神经系统中含量很高且脑区分布特异的二肽分子,内源性NAAG是代谢型谷氨酸受体3亚型(mGluR3)的高效激动剂。它可被NAAG肽酶(NAAG peptidases,NPs)水解成为N-乙酰天门冬     

阿魏酸钠对抗谷氨酸诱导的鼠皮层神经元凋亡作用的影响

目的探讨MEK/ERK信号转导通路是否参与了阿魏酸钠(SF)对抗谷氨酸诱导的鼠皮层神经元凋亡作用。方法以谷氨酸诱导大鼠皮层神经元凋亡为模型。采用Westernblot观察Bcl-2、caspase-3、磷酸化ERK1/2表达的改变。结果阿魏酸钠能够显著降低谷氨酸诱导的神经细胞caspase-3的表达,提高Bcl-2、磷酸化ERK1/2的表达。PD98059可以减弱SF的保护作用。结论 MEK/ERK1/2通路参与阿魏酸钠对抗谷氨酸诱导的鼠皮层神经元凋亡。     

阿魏酸钠对抗Aβ25-35诱导的鼠神经元凋亡作用研究

目的 探讨阿魏酸钠对β淀粉样蛋白(Aβ25-35)通过谷氨酸诱导的鼠皮层神经元凋亡的影响.方法 培养的皮层神经元分别与谷氨酸(20μmol/L)、Aβ25-35(5μmol/L)、Aβ25-35(5μmol/L)+谷氨酸(20μmol/L)孵育,采用Hoechst 33258荧光染色法分析神经细胞凋亡;然后用谷氨酸( 50μmol/L)诱导神经元凋亡,采用荧光染色法和Westem blot观察阿魏酸钠的保护作用.结果 单独应用Aβ25-35(5μmol/L)和单独加入谷氮酸(20μmol/L)引起的皮层神经元凋亡率与对照组无明显差异;Aβ25-35与皮层神经元共同孵育5天,接着用谷氨酸处理24h,细胞凋亡率从正常的9.2%+1.5%增加到43%±8%:阿魏酸钠能够显著降低谷氨酸诱导的神经细胞凋亡百分比至21%±5%,并对抗谷氨酸引起的Bcl-2蛋白表达的降低.结论 阿魏酸钠能够减弱Aβ25-35提高谷氨酸毒性诱导的鼠皮层神经元凋亡.     

阿托伐他汀对谷氨酸引起大鼠神经元损伤保护作用机制的研究

目的探讨阿托伐他汀对谷氨酸所致培养大鼠皮层神经元损伤保护作用的机制。方法 MTT法测定细胞存活率;Hoechst33258核染色观察细胞凋亡的形态学改变;Western blot检测活性的半胱氨酸天冬氨酸蛋白酶-3(caspase-3)和钙蛋白酶Ⅰ蛋白表达水平。结果谷氨酸(100μmol.L-1)可使神经元细胞存活率下降,细胞凋亡百分比明显增加,活性的caspase-3和钙蛋白酶Ⅰ蛋白表达增加。阿托伐他汀明显对抗谷氨酸诱导的神经元存活率下降及细胞凋亡百分比增加,同时明显抑制活性的caspase-3和钙蛋白酶Ⅰ蛋白表达增加。磷酯酰肌醇-3激酶(phos-phoinositide3-kinase,PI3K)/磷酸化蛋白激酶B(protein ki-nase B,Akt)通路特异性阻断剂LY294002(10μmol.L-1)能抑制阿托伐他汀对抗谷氨酸引起神经元细胞存活率下降,细胞凋亡百分比增加及活性caspase-3和钙蛋白酶Ⅰ蛋白表达增加的作用。结论阿托伐他汀能够明显对抗谷氨酸引起的皮层神经元损伤作用,这种作用可能与激活PI3K/Akt信号转导通路有关。     

吡格列酮对谷氨酸诱导皮质神经元损伤保护作用及其抑制JNK信号的机制

目的观察吡格列酮对谷氨酸所致培养皮质神经元损伤的保护作用及作用机制。方法大鼠乳鼠大脑皮质神经元,培养7d后用于实验。实验分为对照组、谷氨酸组、谷氨酸+吡格列酮组、谷氨酸+SP600125组、SP600125组。用MTT法测定细胞活力;Hoechst33258核染色观察细胞凋亡的形态学改变;免疫荧光染色法检测磷酸化活化转录因子2(phospho-ATF2)的表达;Western blot检测磷酸化JNK1和JNK1总量的蛋白表达水平。结果谷氨酸(100μmol.L-1)作用24h可使体外培养的皮质神经元细胞活力明显下降,细胞凋亡百分比明显增加,磷酸化JNK1蛋白水平(谷氨酸作用2h后检测)和磷酸化ATF2表达明显增加。吡格列酮明显对抗谷氨酸引起的皮质神经元损伤,同时明显抑制谷氨酸引起的磷酸化JNK1及磷酸化ATF2表达增多。JNK抑制剂SP600125明显对抗谷氨酸引起的神经元损伤及phos-pho-ATF2表达增多。结论吡格列酮对谷氨酸引起的培养皮质神经元损伤具有明显的保护作用,吡格列酮的保护作用与抑制JNK信号转导通路有关。     

甲基汞对大鼠脑谷氨酸能神经元的免疫组化影响

【目的】　研究甲基汞亚急性染毒诱导大鼠脑内谷氨酸能神经元免疫组化改变 ,探讨其毒性机制。【方法】　免疫组织化学方法。【结果】　在低剂量组 (2mg·kg-1·d-1× 7d)大鼠脑内谷氨酸免疫反应阳性细胞 (Glu IRPC)数目、积分光密度、阳性面积比在给药 14d时下降有显著性意义 (P <0 0 5 )。在高剂量组 (10mg·kg-1·d-1× 7d) ,各时点大鼠各脑区Glu IRPC的数目下降 ,积分光密度降低 ,阳性面积比下降均有显著性意义 (P <0 0 5 ) ,且Glu IRPC的分支突起明显减少 ,有些细胞仅见胞体 ,未见突起。【结论】　甲基汞亚急性染毒可使大鼠脑内谷氨酸能神经元中谷氨酸水平降低     

神经生长因子对培养的脑皮质神经元谷氨酸毒性的影响

在原代培养的大鼠胎鼠脑皮质神经元，观察神经生长因子(NGF)对谷氨酸损伤的影响. 谷氨酸(0.2-0.8 mmol·L^-1) 促进神经元死亡及乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)释放，增加丙二醛(MDA)含量. NGF 3-100 μg·L^-1浓度依赖地抑制谷氨酸引起的神经元死亡及LDH和MDA的增加. NGF 30 μg·L^-1提高超氧化物歧化酶和谷胱甘肽过氧化酶活力. NGF浓度依赖地增加谷氨酸引起的抗氧化酶水平降低. 结果提示NGF通过抑制脂质过氧化物生成及提高抗氧化酶活性来保护大脑皮质细胞抗谷氨酸毒性.     

孕期地塞米松暴露所致雌性子代大鼠海马谷氨酸能系统和神经行为改变

目的观察孕期地塞米松暴露(PDE)雌性子代海马谷氨酸能系统和神经行为改变,并进一步探讨其宫内编程机制。方法 Wistar孕鼠从孕9天(GD9)至GD20皮下注射地塞米松0.2 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)。部分孕鼠在GD20处死收集胎海马,另一部分孕鼠自然生产,子代自然饲养至26周进行行为学检测,于28周处死收集海马。结果 PDE雌性成年子代大鼠表现出空间记忆缺陷和焦虑样行为,其海马糖皮质激素受体(GR)、组蛋白去乙酰化酶(HDAC2)表达增加,脑源性神经营养因子BDNF外显子IV乙酰化位点H3K14水平下调及BDNF表达降低,同时谷氨酸能系统改变,PDE雌性胎海马与成年子代改变一致。体外实验中,地塞米松0.5μmol·L~(-1)可直接导致胎海马神经元GR/HDAC2/BDNF级联改变及谷氨酸能系统改变,而GR拮抗剂RU486及HDAC2抑制剂Romidepsin(Rom)均可逆转地塞米松所致的BDNF外显子Ⅳ乙酰化水平及BDNF表达的下调,RU486亦可逆转地塞米松所致的HDAC2上调,且补充BDNF部分逆转谷氨酸能系统改变。结论 PDE通过活化子代海马GR使HDAC2表达增加,引起BDNF外显子ⅣH3K14ac下调继而导致BDNF表达降低,引起谷氨酸能系统和子代神经行为改变。活化BDNF信号及改善谷氨酸能系统有望成为胎源性异常神经行为的防治靶标。     

知母皂苷元对谷氨酸引起的皮层神经元损伤的保护作用研究

目的观察知母皂苷元(Sarsasapogenin,SAR)对谷氨酸引起的皮层神经元损伤的保护作用。方法大鼠乳鼠大脑皮层神经元,培养7 d后用于实验。倒置相差显微镜观察神经元树突生长发育情况;用MTT法测定细胞活力;Ho-echst33258核染色观察细胞凋亡的形态学改变;Western印迹法检测神经元SYP、caspase-3、钙蛋白酶Ⅰ蛋白表达水平。结果形态学观察结果显示谷氨酸可明显抑制神经元树突的生长发育,表现为神经元树突总长度明显降低、一级树突数目明显减少、最大分支级数明显减少及胞体面积缩小。SAR(10、30、100μmol.L-1)可明显抑制谷氨酸对神经元树突生长发育的抑制作用,并呈明显浓度依赖。MTT和Ho-echst33258核染色结果显示谷氨酸可降低神经元细胞活力及增加神经元细胞凋亡百分比。SAR(10、30、100μmol.L-1)能明显对抗谷氨酸引起的神经元细胞活力降低及细胞凋亡百分比增加。Western印迹结果显示谷氨酸可明显降低SYP蛋白表达水平及增加活性caspase-3、钙蛋白酶Ⅰ蛋白表达水平。SAR(10、30、100μmol.L-1)可明显对抗谷氨酸引起SYP蛋白表达降低及活性caspase-3、钙蛋白酶Ⅰ蛋白表达增加。结论知母皂苷元能够明显对抗谷氨酸引起的皮层神经元损伤作用。     

神经节苷脂GM1对缺血缺氧后谷氨酸及其转运体神经元的作用

目的 :探讨神经节苷脂GM1对新生大鼠缺氧缺血性脑病保护作用及其可能的机理。方法 :通过建立新生鼠缺氧缺血性脑病动物模型 ,应用免疫组化方法 ,观察缺血缺氧后不同时期脑组织中谷氨酸及其转运体阳性神经元的动态变化 ,以及GM1对其的影响。结果 :缺血缺氧后 6h、1、3d大脑皮层和纹状体中谷氨酸阳性神经元明显减少 ,而谷氨酸转运体阳性神经元有所增加 ,GM1组脑组织损伤明显减轻 ,谷氨酸神经元及谷氨酸转运体神经元较单纯缺氧缺血组明显增多。结论 :神经节苷脂GM1对谷氨酸神经元具有保护作用 ,可能是通过部分提高谷氨酸转运体的表达而发挥作用     

The diverse roles of vesicular glutamate transporter 3

The expression of vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) 1 and 2 accounts for the ability of most traditionally accepted excitatory neurons to release glutamate by exocytosis. However, several cell populations (serotonin and dopamine neurons) have been demonstrated to release glutamate in vitro and do not obviously express these transporters. Rather, these neurons express a novel, third isoform that in fact appears confined to neurons generally associated with a transmitter other than glutamate. They include serotonin and possibly dopamine neurons, cholinergic interneurons in the striatum, and GABAergic interneurons of the hippocampus and cortex. Although the physiological role of VGLUT3 remains largely conjectural, several observations in vivo suggest that the glutamate release mediated by VGLUT3 has an important role in synaptic transmission, plasticity, and development.     

Pharmacology of excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs and VGLUTs)

L-Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). It contributes not only to fast synaptic neurotransmission but also to complex physiological processes like plasticity, learning, and memory. Glutamate is synthesized in the cytoplasm and stored in synaptic vesicles by a proton gradient-dependent uptake system (VGLUTs). Following its exocytotic release, glutamate activates different kinds of glutamate receptors and mediates excitatory neurotransmission. To terminate the action of glutamate and maintain its extracellular concentration below excitotoxic levels, glutamate is quickly removed by Na(+)-dependent glutamate transporters (EAATs). Recently, three vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUT1-3) and five Na(+)-dependent glutamate transporters (EAAT1-5) were identified. VGLUTs and EAATs are thought to play important roles in neuronal disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, cerebral ischemia, and Huntington's disease. In this review, the development of new compounds to regulate the function of VGLUTs and EAATs will be described.     

Antipsychotics increase vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) expression in thalamolimbic pathways

Recently the two vesicular-glutamate-transporters VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 have been cloned and characterized. VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 together label all glutamatergic neurons, but because of their distinct expression patterns in the brain they facilitate our ability to define between a VGLUT1-positive cortical and a VGLUT2-positive subcortical glutamatergic systems. We have previously demonstrated an increased cortical VGLUT1 expression as marker of antidepressant activity. Here, we assessed the effects of different psychotropic drugs on brain VGLUT2 mRNA and protein expression. The typical antipsychotic haloperidol, and the atypicals clozapine and risperidone increased VGLUT2 mRNA selectively in the central medial/medial parafascicular, paraventricular and intermediodorsal thalamic nuclei; VGLUT2 protein was accordingly amplified in paraventricular and ventral striatum and in prefrontal cortex. The antidepressants fluoxetine and desipramine and the sedative anxiolytic diazepam had no effect. These results highlight the implication of thalamo-limbic glutamatergic pathways in the action of antipsychotics. Increased VGLUT2 expression in these neurons might constitute a marker for antipsychotic activity and subcortical glutamate neurotransmission might be a possible novel target for future generation antipsychotics.     

Selective cortical VGLUT1 increase as a marker for antidepressant activity

The two recently characterized vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUT) presynaptically mark and differentiate two distinct excitatory neuronal populations and thus define a cortical and a subcortical glutamatergic system (VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 positive, respectively). These two systems might be differentially implicated in brain neuropathology. Still, little is known on the modalities of VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 regulations in response to pharmacological or physiological stimuli. Given the importance of cortical neuronal activity in psychosis we investigated VGLUT1 mRNA and protein expression in response to chronic treatment with commonly prescribed psychotropic medications. We show that agents with antidepressant activity, namely the antidepressants fluoxetine and desipramine, the atypical antipsychotic clozapine, and the mood stabilizer lithium increased VGLUT1 mRNA expression in neurons of the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus and in concert enhanced VGLUT1 protein expression in their projection fields. In contrast the typical antipsychotic haloperidol, the cognitive enhancers memantine and tacrine, and the anxiolytic diazepam were without effect. We suggest that VGLUT1 could be a useful marker for antidepressant activity. Furthermore, adaptive changes in VGLUT1 positive neurons could constitute a common functional endpoint for structurally unrelated antidepressants, representing promising antidepressant targets in tracking specificity, mechanism, and onset at action.     

Inhibitor of the glutamate vesicular transporter (VGLUT)

The vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) is responsible for the uptake of the excitatory amino acid, L-glutamate, into synaptic vesicles. VGLUT activity is coupled to an electrochemical gradient driven by a vacuolar ATPase and stimulated by low Cl-. VGLUT has relatively low affinity (K(m) = 1-3 mM) for glutamate and is pharmacologically and structurally distinct from the Na+-dependent, excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) found on the plasma membrane. Because glutamatergic neurotransmission begins with vesicular release, compounds that block the uptake of glutamate into the vesicle may reduce excitotoxic events. Several classes of competitive VGLUT inhibitors have emerged including amino acids and amino acid analogs, fatty acids, azo dyes, quinolines and alkaloids. The potency with which these agents inhibit VGLUT varies from millimolar (amino acids) to nanomolar (azo dyes) concentrations. These inhibitors represent highly diverse structures and have collectively begun to reveal key pharmacophore elements that may elucidate the key interactions important to binding VGLUT. Using known inhibitor structures and preliminary molecular modeling, a VGLUT pharmacophore is presented that will aid in the design of new, highly potent and selective agents.     

Developmentally regulated expression of VGLUT3 during early post-natal life

Three subtypes of vesicular glutamate transporters, named VGLUT1-3, accumulate glutamate into synaptic vesicles. In this study, the post-natal expression of VGLUT3 was determined with specific probes and antiserums in the rat brain and compared with that of VGLUT1 and VGLUT2. The expression of VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 increases linearly during post-natal development. In contrast, VGLUT3 developmental pattern appears to have a more or less biphasic profile. A first peak of expression is centered around post-natal day 10 (P10) while the second one is reached in the adult brain. Between P1 and P15, VGLUT3 is observed in the frontal brain (striatum, accumbens, and hippocampus) and in the caudal brain (colliculi, pons and cerebellum). During a second phase extending from P15 to adulthood, the labeling of the caudal brain fades away. The adult pattern is reached at P21. We further analyzed the transient expression of VGLUT3 in the cerebellum and found it to correspond to a temporary expression in Purkinje cells. At P10 VGLUT3 immunoreactivity was present both in the soma and terminals of Purkinje cells (PC), where it colocalized with the vesicular inhibitory amino acid transporter (VIAAT). In agreement with data from the literature [Gillespie, D.C., Kim, G., Kandler, K., 2005. Inhibitory synapses in the developing auditory system are glutamatergic. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 332-338], our results suggest that during the first 2 weeks of post-natal life PC may have the potential to transiently release simultaneously GABA and glutamate.     

Vesicular glutamate transporter acts as a metabolic regulator

Vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) is responsible for the active transport of L-glutamate into synaptic vesicles and, thus, plays an essential role in the glutamatergic chemical transmission in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Recent studies indicated that VGLUT is also expressed and localized in various secretory vesicles in non-neuronal peripheral organelles such as hormone-containing secretory granules in endocrine cells. L-Glutamate is stored in VGLUT-containing organelles, secreted upon stimulation, and then acts as a paracrine and/or autocrine modulator to regulate cellular functions. Thus, VGLUT is a key molecule for glutamate signaling and is the core of a novel signaling system.     

The pharmacology of the neurochemical transmission in the midbrain raphe nuclei of the rat

Midbrain slices containing the dorsal and medial raphe nuclei were prepared from rat brain, loaded with [(3)H]serotonin ([(3)H]5-HT), superfused and the release of [(3)H]5-HT was determined at rest and in response to electrical stimulation. Compartmental analysis of [(3)H]5-HT taken up by raphe tissue indicated various pools where the neurotransmitter release may originate from these stores differed both in size and rate constant. 5-HT release originates not only from vesicles but also from cytoplasmic stores via a transporter-dependent exchange process establishing synaptic and non-synaptic neurochemical transmission in the serotonergic somatodendritic area. Manipulation of 5-HT transporter function modulates extracellular 5-HT concentrations in the raphe nuclei: of the SSRIs, fluoxetine was found 5-HT releaser, whereas citalopram did not exhibit this effect. Serotonergic projection neurons in the raphe nuclei possess inhibitory 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(1B/1D) receptors and facilitatory 5-HT(3) receptors, which regulate 5-HT release in an opposing fashion. This observation indicates that somatodendritic 5-HT release in the raphe nuclei is under the control of several 5-HT homoreceptors. 5-HT(7) receptors located on glutamatergic axon terminals indirectly inhibit 5-HT release by reducing glutamatergic facilitation of serotonergic projection neurons. An opposite regulation of glutamatergic axon terminals was also found by involvement of the inhibitory 5-HT(7) and the stimulatory 5-HT(2) receptors as these receptors inhibit and stimulate glutamate release in raphe slice preparation, respectively, Furthermore, postsynaptic 5-HT(1B/1D) heteroreceptors interact with release of GABA in inhibitory fashion in raphe GABAergic interneurons. Serotonergic projection neurons also possess glutamate and GABA heteroreceptors; NMDA and AMPA receptors release 5-HT, whereas both GABAA and GABAB receptors inhibit somatodendritic 5-HT release. Evidence was found for reciprocal interactions between serotonergic and glutamatergic as well as serotonergic and GABAergic innervations in the raphe nuclei. Serotonergic neurons in the raphe nuclei also receive noradrenergic innervation arising from the locus coeruleus and alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenoceptors inhibited [(3)H]5-HT release in our experimental conditions. The close relation between 5-HT transporter and release-mediating 5-HT autoreceptors was also shown by addition of L-deprenyl, a drug possessing inhibition of type B monoamine oxidase and 5-HT reuptake. L-Deprenyl selectively desensitizes 5-HT(1B) but not 5-HT(1A) receptors and these effects are not related to inhibition of 5-HT metabolism but rather to inhibition of 5-HT transporter.     

Lentiviral Delivery of a Vesicular Glutamate Transporter 1 (VGLUT1)-Targeting Short Hairpin RNA Vector Into the Mouse Hippocampus Impairs Cognition

Glutamate is the principle excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain, and dysregulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission is implicated in the pathophysiology of several psychiatric and neurological diseases. This study utilized novel lentiviral short hairpin RNA (shRNA) vectors to target expression of the vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1) following injection into the dorsal hippocampus of adult mice, as partial reductions in VGLUT1 expression should attenuate glutamatergic signaling and similar reductions have been reported in schizophrenia. The VGLUT1-targeting vector attenuated tonic glutamate release in the dorsal hippocampus without affecting GABA, and selectively impaired novel object discrimination (NOD) and retention (but not acquisition) in the Morris water maze, without influencing contextual fear-motivated learning or causing any adverse locomotor or central immune effects. This pattern of cognitive impairment is consistent with the accumulating evidence for functional differentiation along the dorsoventral axis of the hippocampus, and supports the involvement of dorsal hippocampal glutamatergic neurotransmission in both spatial and nonspatial memory. Future use of this nonpharmacological VGLUT1 knockdown mouse model could improve our understanding of glutamatergic neurobiology and aid assessment of novel therapies for cognitive deficits such as those seen in schizophrenia.     

ELECTROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES, SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION AND NEUROMODULATION IN SEROTONERGIC CAUDAL RAPHE NEURONS

1. We studied electrophysiological properties, synaptic transmission and modulation by 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) of caudal raphe neurons using whole-cell recording in a neonatal rat brain slice preparation; recorded neurons were identified as serotonergic by post-hoc immunohistochemical detection of tryptophan hydroxylase, the 5-HT-synthesizing enzyme. 2. Serotonergic neurons fired spontaneously (approximately 1 Hz), with maximal steady state firing rates of < 4 Hz. 5-Hydroxytryptamine caused hyperpolarization and cessation of spike activity in these neurons by activating inwardly rectifying K⁺ conductance via somatodendritic 5-HT_1A receptors. 3. Unitary glutamatergic excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSP) and currents (EPSC) were evoked in serotonergic neurons by local electrical stimulation. Evoked EPSC were potently inhibited by 5-HT, an effect mediated by presynaptic 5-HT_IB receptors. 4. In conclusion, serotonergic caudal raphe neurons are spontaneously active in vitro; they receive prominent glutamatergic synaptic inputs. 5-Hydroxytryptamine regulates serotonergic neuronal activity of the caudal raphe by decreasing spontaneous activity via somatodendritic 5-HT_IA receptors and by inhibiting excitatory synaptic transmission onto these neurons via presynaptic 5-HTIB receptors. These local modulatory mechanisms provide multiple levels of feedback autoregulation of serotonergic raphe neurons by 5-HT.