The Prevalence of Major Depression Is Not Changing

Objective:

To evaluate trends in the prevalence of major depressive episodes (MDEs) in Canada during the past 2 decades using data collected in a series of national surveys.

Method:

MDE prevalence has been assessed in national surveys that either used a short form version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short Form for Major Depression (CIDI-SFMD) or an adaptation of the World Health Organization’s (full-length) version, World Mental Health (WMH) CIDI. We applied meta-regression methods to adjust for instrument type while also addressing design effects in the individual data sets. Interprovincial differences that might have confounded estimation of national trends were also explored.

Results:

Interprovincial differences were not found to be significant, nor were time by province interactions. Estimates based on the WMH-CIDI were about 1% lower than those using the CIDI-SFMD. There was no evidence of changing prevalence over time, with slope for time, adjusted for assessment instrument, being nearly zero (β = 0.0007, P = 0.24).

Conclusion:

An extensive collection of surveys conducted in Canada between 1994 and 2012 provide an opportunity to examine long-term trends in the prevalence of major depression. MDE prevalence has not changed during this period of time.     

Descriptive Epidemiology of Major Depressive Disorder in Canada in 2012

Objective:

The epidemiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) was first described in the Canadian national population in 2002. Updated information is now available from a 2012 survey: the Canadian Community Health Study—Mental Health (CCHS-MH).

Method:

The CCHS-MH employed an adaptation of the World Health Organization World Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Interview and had a sample of n = 25 113. Demographic variables, treatment, comorbidities, suicidal ideation, and perceived stigma were assessed. The analysis estimated adjusted and unadjusted frequencies and prevalence ratios. All estimates incorporated analysis methods to account for complex survey design effects.

Results:

The past-year prevalence of MDD was 3.9% (95% CI 3.5% to 4.2%). Prevalence was higher in women and in younger age groups. Among respondents with past-year MDD, 63.1% had sought treatment and 33.1% were taking an antidepressant (AD); 4.8% had past-year alcohol abuse and 4.5% had alcohol dependence. Among respondents with past-year MDD, the prevalence of cannabis abuse was 2.5% and that of dependence was 2.9%. For drugs other than cannabis, the prevalence of abuse was 2.3% and dependence was 2.9%. Generalized anxiety disorder was present in 24.9%. Suicide attempts were reported by 6.6% of respondents with past-year MDD. Among respondents accessing treatment, 37.5% perceived that others held negative opinions about them or treated them unfairly because of their disorder.

Conclusions:

MDD is a common, burdensome, and stigmatized condition in Canada. Seeking help from professionals was reported at a higher frequency than in prior Canadian studies, but there has been no increase in AD use among Canadians with MDD.     

Antidepressant utilization in Canada

Objective Antidepressant utilization can be used as an indicator of appropriate treatment for major depression. The objective of this study was to characterize antidepressant utilization in Canada, including the relationships of antidepressant use with sociodemographic variables, past-year and lifetime depression, number of past depressive episodes, and other possible indications for antidepressants. Method We examined data from the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) Cycle 1.2. The CCHS was a nationally representative mental health survey (N=36,984) conducted in 2002 that included a diagnostic instrument for past-year and lifetime major depressive episodes and other psychiatric disorders and a record of past-year antidepressant use. Results Overall, 5.8% of Canadians were taking antidepressants, higher than the annual prevalence of major depressive episode (4.8%) in the survey. Among persons with a past-year major depressive episode, the frequency of antidepressant use was 40.4%. After application of adjustments for probable successful outcomes of treatment, the estimated frequency of antidepressant use for major depression was more than 50%. Frequency of antidepressant treatment among those with a history of depression but without a past-year episode increased with the number of previous episodes. Among those taking antidepressants over the past year, only 33.1% had had a past-year episode of major depression. Migraine, fibromyalgia, anxiety disorder, or past depression was present in more than 60% of those taking antidepressants without a past-year episode of depression. Conclusions The CCHS results suggest that antidepressant use has increased substantially since the early 1990s, and also that these medications are employed extensively for indications other than depression. Disclaimer: this research and analysis were based on data from Statistics Canada. The opinions expressed in this paper do not represent the views of Statistics Canada. This research was presented at the Canadian Academy for Psychiatric Epidemiology 2004 Annual Scientific Symposium on October 14, 2004 in Montreal, Canada.     

Serotonin transporter polymorphism (5‐HTTLPR) association with melancholic depression: a female specific effect?

Earlier studies yielded inconsistent results on the association between variation in the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene and depression, with evidence for a differential effect of the 5-HTTLPR on melancholic versus atypical depression. To further delineate the impact of 5-HTT gene variation on psychopathology in depression, in this analysis the influence of the 5-HTTLPR and the functionally closely related 5-HTT rs25531 was investigated in 340 Caucasian patients with a major depressive episode (DSM-IV) with particular attention to the subtype of depression (melancholic depression versus atypical depression) applying logistic regression models adjusted for age and gender. The homozygous, more active 5-HTTLPR LL genotype was significantly associated with melancholic depression (odds ratio, OR, 1.7; 95% confidence interval, CI, 1.1-2.6; P=0.04), with the effect originating in the female subgroup of patients (OR 1.9; 95%CI 1.0-3.4; P=0.05). Also, the more active 5-HTTLPR/5-HTT rs25531 haplotype L(A)L(A) conveyed a significant risk for melancholic depression (OR 2.0; 95%CI 1.3-3.1; P=0.001), again only in the female subsample of patients (OR 2.1; 95%CI 1.1-4.1; P=0.02). The present results provide further support for an association of genetic variation increasing serotonin transporter activity with the melancholic subtype of depression as well as evidence for a potential female-specific mechanism underlying this effect.     

Demographic, family, and occupational characteristics associated with major depression: the Harvard study of moods and cycles

OBJECTIVE: This study assesses the extent to which women with and without major depression differ by demographic, familial, and occupational characteristics. METHOD: From a community-based sample, the authors identified 332 women with and 644 women without current or past major depression based on Structured Clinical Interviews for DSM-IV. Demographic and background interviews were conducted in-person. RESULTS: Depressed women were more likely to have gained >or =35 lbs between age 18 and study enrollment (OR=1.6, 95% CI 1.1-2.5), experienced divorce (OR=2.0, 95% CI 1.4-2.8), or changed occupations (OR=1.5, 95% CI 1.1-2.1) compared with non-depressed women. Compared with women with no brothers, those with > or =1 brothers were less likely to have a history of depression (OR=0.8, 95% CI 0.6-1.1), whereas compared with women with no sisters, those with > or =1 sisters were more likely to have current or past depression (OR=1.4, 95% CI 1.0-1.9). These findings were not influenced by family sibship size. CONCLUSION: These results illustrate demographic differences between women with and without major depression and that sibship gender rather than size may also influence risk.     

Research Article: Antidepressant use among Asians in the United States

Objectives: We examined the prevalence and predictors of past‐year antidepressant use in a nationally representative sample of Asian Americans and non‐Latino Whites. Methods: Analyses of 12‐month antidepressant medication use were based on data from the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys that surveyed Asian (Chinese, Filipino, Vietnamese, and others; N=2,284) and non‐Latino White (N=6,696) household residents ages 18 years and older in the 48 contiguous United States and Hawaii. Results: Prevalence rates for 12‐month antidepressant use for Asians with major depression ranged from 8.7% among Vietnamese to 17% among Chinese respondents. Compared to non‐Latino Whites (32.4%), all Asians (10.9%) meeting criteria for 12‐month depressive and anxiety disorders, but especially Filipinos (8.8%) were less likely to report past‐year antidepressant use. Conclusions: We found disparities in past‐year antidepressant use among all the examined major Asian groups meeting criteria for 12‐month depressive and anxiety disorders. These disparities were not explained by mental health need or socioeconomic factors that enable access to care. Depression and Anxiety, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

福建省重性抑郁障碍流行病学调查

目的:了解福建省重性抑郁障碍患病率,探讨可能的影响因素.方法:采用多阶段分层整群抽样方法,随机抽取10 000名≥15岁的个体为调查对象,以改编后的一般健康问卷12项(GHQ-12)为筛选工具;以美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版轴I障碍定式临床检查患者版(SCID-I/P)为调查的诊断工具.结果:福建省重性抑郁障碍时点...     

Ethnic differences in mental health service use among White, Chinese, South Asian and South East Asian populations living in Canada

Background  Health services in Canada are publicly funded. However, the use of health services, especially mental health services, by ethnic minority groups in Canada, has not been well studied. Objectives  The objectives of the study were to estimate the 12-month prevalence of mental health service use by ethnicities, overall and among those with major depression, and to identify factors associated with mental health services use in different ethnic groups in Canada. Methods  Data from the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS-1.1) were used. Participants included in this analysis were white who were born in Canada (n = 108,192), white immigrants (n = 10,892), Chinese (n = 1,785), South Asian (n = 1,214), and South East Asian immigrants (n = 818). Participants were selected using multiple staged, stratified random sampling procedures from household residents aged 12 years or older in ten provinces. Results  White people were more likely to have used mental health services than Chinese participants and those from South Asian and South East Asian regions. The Chinese participants appeared to be less likely to have used mental health services than those in the South Asian and South East Asian groups, in those without major depression. Conclusions  In Canada, Asian immigrants are less likely to use mental health service use than white people. More studies are needed to examine factors affecting mental health service use in Asian immigrants living in North America. JianLi Wang is supported by a New Investigator Award from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.     

首发、复发和双相抑郁患者精神症状的比较

目的:探讨首发、复发及双相抑郁患者精神症状的差异。方法:对首次抑郁发作患者(首发组,24例)、复发性抑郁症患者(复发组,57例)及双相抑郁患者(双相组,25例)进行汉密尔顿抑郁评定量表(HAMD)、汉密尔顿焦虑评定量表(HAMA)、杨氏躁狂评定量表(YMRS)以及阳性和阴性症状评定量表(PANSS)评定和比较。结果:HAMD、HAMA评分在3组间差异无统计学意义;YMRS评分3组间差异有统计学意义(F=5.2,P=0.007);双相组(6.6±9.0)显著高于首发组(2.8±3.4)和复发组(2.2±3.2)(q=3.86,q=4.40;P均<0.05)。双相组HAMD中的躯体焦虑因子分、体重因子分均显著低于复发组(P<0.05或P<0.01);双相组精神病理学症状评分如意志活动、愤怒、幻觉、易激惹、激越、思维联想加快、破坏或攻击行为、活动增加显著高于首发组及复发组(P<0.05或P<0.01)。结论:双相障碍患者抑郁发作时可出现与躁狂相关精神症状。     

Mirtazapine does not influence tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone levels in depressed patients

Background. Among the neuroactive steroids, 3α,5α-tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone (3α,5α-THDOC) is at least in part produced in the adrenal gland and is therefore under the control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system. The antidepressant mirtazapine has been shown to attenuate HPA axis activity and to increase the concentrations of 3α-reduced metabolites of progesterone in depressed patients. In the present study, the impact of mirtazapine on 3α,5α-THDOC levels was investigated in relation to clinical response in depressed patients. Method. A total of 23 drug-free inpatients suffering from a major depressive episode (DSM-IV criteria) underwent 5-week treatment with mirtazapine (45 mg/day). Plasma samples were taken weekly at 08:00 h and were quantified for 3α,5α-THDOC levels. Results. 3α,5α-THDOC levels were not correlated with demographic and clinical parameters such as age and severity of depression. Moreover, 5-week treatment with mirtazapine did not influence the 3α,5α-THDOC in the depressed patients, neither in responders nor in non-responders. Conclusion. Putative increasing effects of mirtazapine on 3α-reduced neuroactive steroids such as 3α,5α-THDOC which may be mediated via an impact on the neurosteroidogenic enzyme 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase seem to be counterbalanced by the mirtazapine-induced inhibition of ACTH secretion which directly influences the 3α,5α-THDOC release of the adrenal cortex.     

Panic disorder versus panic disorder with major depression: Defining and understanding differences in psychiatric morbidity

The present study examined the impact of comorbid major depressive disorder (MDD) on psychiatric morbidity, panic symptomatology and frequency of other comorbid psychiatric conditions in subjects with panic disorder (PD). Four hundred thirty-seven patients with PD were evaluated at intake as part of a multicenter longitudinal study of anxiety disorders; 113 of these patients were also in an episode of MDD. Patients were diagnosed by DSM-III-R criteria utilizing structured clinical interviews. The 113 PD/MDD patients were compared with the 324 remaining PD subjects regarding panic symptoms at intake, sociodemographic, quality of life and psychiatric morbidity variables. Differences in frequency of other comorbid Axis I psychiatric disorders were assessed at intake; personality disorders were evaluated twelve months after intake. The results revealed that PD/MDD patients exhibit increased morbidity and decreased psychosocial functioning as compared to PD patients. Personality disorders were more prevalent in the PD/MDD group at six month follow-up assessment; the PD/MDD group also had an increased frequency of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and more comorbid Axis I anxiety disorders as compared to the PD group. The total number and frequency of panic symptoms was highly consistent between the two patient groups. Depression and Anxiety 5:12–20, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Sex- and age-specific associations between major depressive disorder and metabolic syndrome in two general population samples in Germany

Background and aims: Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been associated with the Metabolic Syndrome (MetS). As previous data strongly suggested sex and age effects on this association, this study aimed to analyse the association between MDD and MetS in two general population samples under explicit consideration of sex and age.

Methods: This study analysed cross-sectional data based on two independent general population samples: SHIP-0 (n?=?4083; 20–81 years; 49.4% male) and SHIP-TREND-0 (n?=?3957; 20–83 years; 49.0% male) that were part of the Study of Health in Pomerania. MDD (SHIP-0: 12.6%; SHIP-TREND-0: 27.2%) was assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic-Screener (CID-S) in both samples. Interview assessment of MDD diagnosis according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (DSM-IV) criteria was performed in SHIP-TREND-0 (18.1% MDD). MetS was defined by abdominal obesity, elevated blood pressure, elevated glucose, elevated triglycerides and reduced high-density lipoprotein cholesterol according to established criteria. Data analysis was performed sex- and age-stratified.

Results: Prevalence of MetS was high in both samples: 19.4% of females and 30.2% of males in SHIP-0 and 22.1% and 33.2% in SHIP-TREND-0, respectively. Effect modifications were observed by sex and age on the association between MDD and MetS. Particularly, younger females (20–49 years) with MDD were more often affected by MetS than younger females without MDD: OR?=?2.21 (95% CI?=?1.39–3.50). This association vanished in elderly participants (50–82 years).

Conclusion: The data suggest that especially younger (presumably pre-menopausal) females with MDD are more likely to have MetS than those without major depressive disorders, and that age extenuates this association.     

Antidepressant use in a nationally representative sample of community‐dwelling US Latinos with and without depressive and anxiety disorders

Background: Antidepressant drugs are among the most widely prescribed drugs in the United States; however, little is known about their use among major ethnic minority groups. Method: Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys (CPES) data were analyzed to calculate nationally representative estimates of Latino and non‐Latino White adults antidepressant use. Setting: The 48 coterminous United States was the setting. Participants: Household residents aged 18 years and older (N=9,250). Main outcome: Past year antidepressant use. Results: Compared to non‐Latino Whites, few Latinos, primarily Mexican Americans, with 12‐month depressive and/or anxiety disorders reported past year antidepressant use. Mexican Americans (OR=0.48; 95%CI=0.30–0.77) had significantly lower odds of use compared to non‐Latino Whites, which were largely unaffected by factors associated with access to care. Over half of antidepressant use was by respondents not meeting 12‐month criteria for depressive or anxiety disorders. Lifetime depressive and anxiety disorders explained another 21% of past year antidepressant use, leaving another 31% of drug use unexplained. Discussion: We found a disparity in antidepressant use for Mexican Americans compared to non‐Latino Whites that was not accounted for by differences in need and factors associated with access to care. About one third of antidepressant use was by respondents not meeting criteria for depressive or anxiety disorders. Our findings underscore the importance of disaggregating Latino ethnic groups. Additional work is needed to understand the medical and economic value of antidepressant use beyond their primary clinical targets. Depression and Anxiety, 2009. Published 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.