Inferior heel pain

Inferior heel pain affects up to 10% of the population. There are multiple pathologies and these can be considered by the anatomical structure affected (i.e. bone, nerve, ligamentous and other soft tissues). The most common pathology is in ligamentous and soft tissue. The plantar fascia may be degenerate (fasciosis), torn or enthesopathic, or there may be peri-fascial oedema. Soft tissue conditions include heel pad bruising and atrophy and tumours. Neurological causes are probably the next most common and include tarsal tunnel syndrome, nerve to abductor digiti quinti neuropathy, medial calcaneal neuropathy and lumbo-sacral radiculopathy. Bony pathologies include calcaneal stress fracture, calcaneal bone marrow oedema, tumours and osteomyelitis. The presenting features of each of these conditions are discussed, followed by the treatment options. The multitude of modalities used to treat plantar fascia-related pain are discussed in greater detail. The management of inferior heel pain involves a careful history and clinical examination. Not all heel pain is simply related to the plantar fascia. Without considering the other potential sources of pathology for which treatments may be markedly different, the clinician may easily unwittingly discount these. It is therefore incumbent to be clinically prudent, having a logical approach to assessment and diagnosis, prior to embarking on an appropriate course of treatment.     

Orofacial pain assessment and management for patients with dementia: A meta‐ethnography

Delivering dental treatment for patients with dementia can be challenging, and the complexity of treatment provision can increase as dementia progresses. Treatment at the later stages of dementia can be associated with ethical challenges and procedural risk meaning that a comprehensive patient assessment is crucial; the presence of orofacial pain is a key indication for active intervention from dental teams. To explore the process of oro‐facial pain assessment and management, a comprehensive review of qualitative literature was undertaken by searching six electronic databases. No literature specific to orofacial pain assessment was identified. The inclusion criteria were widened to explore assessment and management of pain in general for patients with dementia. Meta‐ethnography with reciprocal translation was used to identify key concepts and themes and synthesise information applicable to the dental setting. Three major themes arose as follows: challenges with pain assessment, challenges with pain management and logistics and education. Healthcare teams struggle with pain identification in patients with dementia though many signs were identified which may suggest a patient is experiencing pain. The long‐term knowledge of individual patients held by family members and care teams can allow identification of deviation from patients’ normal states; this knowledge can assist healthcare professionals in determining whether to provide specific treatments or interventions. Pain assessment tools were found to be problematic and are unlikely to be a practical solution to use for complex patients in dental settings. Education for dental and wider care teams on orofacial pain would be highly valuable; yet, this needs to be based on suitable evidence.     

Biologic mechanisms of oral cancer pain and implications for clinical therapy

Cancer pain is an ever-present public health concern. With innovations in treatment, cancer patients are surviving longer, but uncontrollable pain creates a poor quality of life for these patients. Oral cancer is unique in that it causes intense pain at the primary site and significantly impairs speech, swallowing, and masticatory functions. We propose that oral cancer pain has underlying biologic mechanisms that are generated within the cancer microenvironment. A comprehensive understanding of key mediators that control cross-talk between the cancer and peripheral nervous system, and possible interventions, underlies effective cancer pain management. The purpose of this review is to explore the current studies on oral cancer pain and their implications in clinical management for cancer pain in general. Furthermore, we will explore the endogenous opioid systems and novel cancer pain therapeutics that target these systems, which could solve the issue of opiate tolerance and improve quality of life in oral cancer patients.     

Understanding and managing the interaction between sleep and pain: an update for the dentist

Pain is a symptom well known to disrupt numerous aspects of normal physical and psychological life, including work, social activities and sleep. In daily practice, general dentists and specialists are frequently confronted with issues concerning pain, as their patients seek management that integrates oral health with overall well-being. An example of a dental condition involving pain is temporomandibular disorder, which is one of the most common sources of chronic orofacial pain and which shares similarities with back pain in terms of intensity, persistence and psychosocial impact. The objective of this paper is to inform and aid the general dentist and the specialist concerned with the sleep quality of patients with orofacial pain.     

Drug addiction and dental care.

Patients who are addicted to drugs, or are being treated for drug addiction, present a variety of management issues when they attend for dental care. A number of factors are related to the treatment planning and clinical management. Dentists should be aware of these factors in order to manage these patients sensitively and effectively. Important management issues include medical problems associated with drug abuse, dental problems and how drug abuse and its subsequent treatment affect the dentition, behavioural disorders, pain management, and control of cross-infection. People who have recovered from chemical dependency to opiates have special needs, especially in pain management. Establishing a good pre-treatment rapport with the patient will assist the dentist in reducing the need for postoperative analgesics, and will encourage this group of patients to return and obtain needed dental care. The more dental practitioners know about types and patterns of drug abuse and recovery programmes, the more safely this group of patients with special needs can be managed.     

Pain management following dental trauma and surgical procedures

Surgical procedures and post-traumatic management of dental patients require effective pain management during treatment, but being considerably more invasive than conservative treatments, pain management is required into the postoperative period. Clinical trials on pain intensity following dental surgical procedures (e.g., 3rd molar extraction, implant placement, periodontal, and endodontic surgery) have shown that pain is most intense approximately 5–6 h after completion of the procedure, reaching its peak levels during the first postoperative day. Greatest consumption of analgesics occurs during the first 48–72 h after 3rd molar extraction. For the management of perioperative pain associated with either conservative or surgical dental treatment, the local anesthetics articaine, lidocaine, mepivacaine, and prilocaine are preferred. These drugs, with a vasoconstrictor, provide a rapid onset and a duration of pulpal anesthesia adequate to complete most dental and surgical procedures painlessly. For management of post-traumatic and postsurgical pain, bupivacaine—administered by an appropriate nerve block—near the conclusion of a surgical procedure, can provide the patient with a pain-free period of up to 12 h. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs represent the most effective drugs for the management of dental postsurgical pain. NSAIDs, as a group in therapeutic doses, have numbers needed to treat (NNTs) ranging from 2 to 3, while opioid analgesics do not approach those for NSAIDs. A protocol for management of pain following surgical procedures and traumatic injuries is discussed in this paper and includes preemptive NSAID; perioperative pain management; postoperative pain management—local anesthesia; postoperative pain management—analgesics; postoperative telephone call.     

Current concepts in the management of pain in the head and neck cancer patient

The question arises as to the role of the dentist in the management of patients whose pain is of malignant disease origin. Dentists called on to provide treatment to these patients will often be asked their opinions on pain management. The purpose of this article is to familiarize the dentist with current trends in the treatment of pain of malignant origins.     

The management of acute dental pain in the recovering alcoholic

Although there have been many advances in our understanding of the neurophysiology of pain, the management of acute pain continues to be a challenge. When the need arises to provide adequate and effective pain management for the recovering alcoholic, the problem becomes much more complex. The clinician must provide the patient with adequate analgesia without causing a relapse. In the US, 6% to 10% of the population has attended Alcoholics Anonymous at some point, increasing the likelihood of the clinician being faced with the need to manage acute pain in a recovering alcoholic. The purpose of this article is to suggest guidelines for the management of acute dental pain in the recovering alcoholic based on current principles of acute pain management and for the treatment of pain in addicted patients.     

疼痛管理对口腔种植围术期患者的影响

目的:探讨口腔种植患者围术期疼痛管理方法,提高对口腔门诊种植手术患者的护理水平.方法:纳入100例口腔门诊种植手术患者,以随机抽签方式分为管理组和对照组,管理组采用疼痛管理干预手段进行护理,对照组仅采用传统常规护理,对2组患者的术后疼痛及满意度进行比较.采用SPSS 16.0软件包对评价结果进行x2检验.结果:在2组紧张程度相同的情况下,管理组患者的疼痛率降低,满意率高,与对照组之间差异显著(P＜0.05).结论:通过对口腔种植患者进行围术期疼痛管理,可有效减轻不适感,提高患者的满意度,有利于及早康复.     

Arthrocentesis for temporomandibular joint pain dysfunction syndrome.

The management of refractory temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pain is both challenging and controversial. A number of simple, noninvasive approaches have been used in the management of this condition with variable success. In patients who fail to respond to conventional conservative measures, in a joint that is not deemed to be grossly mechanically deranged, we advocate the use of TMJ arthrocentesis. In our practice, this is followed by intra-articular morphine infusion in an attempt to give long-term pain relief. Arthrocentesis is a simple technique with minimal morbidity that can be tried instead of more invasive procedures. To date we have used arthrocentesis of the upper joint space, with intra-articular morphine injection in over 500 TMJs. Approximately 90% of patients have found the procedure beneficial, with pain often being reduced 1 year after the procedure. We recommend arthrocentesis as an effective, minimally invasive technique in patients with continuing pain in the TMJ that is unresponsive to conservative management. We additionally advocate the use of intra-articular morphine as a long acting analgesic in these patients. Although arthrocentesis is a well documented technique and there have been many studies published in relation to the use of intra-articular morphine in orthopedic surgery, further research is required, to delineate its use in the TMJ more fully.     

Interprofessional Collaboration in Dentistry: Role of physiotherapists to improve care and outcomes for chronic pain conditions and sleep disorders

Physiotherapists can manage chronic pain patients by using technical interventions such as mobility, strengthening, manual therapy, or flexibility in a specific and functional manner, being a key component of a multidisciplinary team. Dentists are involved in the management of different chronic pain conditions such as temporomandibular disorders and sleep disorders such as obstructive sleep apnea. However, they are frequently unaware of the benefits of collaborating with physical therapists. In this review, the collaboration of physical therapists and dentists will be explored when managing orofacial pain, headaches, and sleep disorders. The physical therapist is important in the management of these disorders and also in the screening of risk factors.     

The assessment of thoracic pain

Patients with thoracic back pain are proportionately far more likely to have serious spinal pathology than in patients with cervical or lumbar back pain. Thoracic back pain should therefore always be thought of as a ‘red-flag’. The symptom of thoracic back pain may be the first presenting feature of spinal infection, thoracic disc prolapse or neoplasm. It is vital that any practicing orthopaedic surgeon is able to make a thorough assessment of this patient group. As in all medical conditions, a good idea of the diagnosis can usually be obtained with a detailed history and examination. In the case of spinal disease further investigations are of vital importance in order to confirm the diagnosis and to demonstrate neural as well as vertebral involvement. Management will vary depending on the aetiology and presentation.This article will outline a safe and thorough approach to the diagnostic pathways and management of these patients.     

Cryoanalgesia in the management of intractable pain in the temporomandibular joint: a five-year retrospective review

Cryoanalgesia is a controversial adjunct to the management of chronic pain, but we know of no studies that have investigated its effect in the management of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pain. In this five-year retrospective study we treated 17 patients who had severe pain that had failed to respond to all forms of conventional conservative treatment and were not appropriate for simple open operation. None had a clear indication for open operation on the joint or had too severe disease to warrant a simple procedure. Preliminary diagnostic injections of bupivacaine to the TMJ relieved the pain. We applied the cryoprobe in the region of the auriculotemporal nerve and TMJ capsule. There was a small but insignificant improvement in mean mouth opening together with a significant (p = 0.000) improvement in visual analogue pain scores (VAS) from 6.8 (range 4–10) to 2.0 (range 0–7). Two patients had no change in their pain scores, and 2 had complete resolution of their pain. The mean number of pain-free months after treatment was 7 (IQR 3–15). Three patients had long-term pain relief, and 12 temporary relief; 6 of these subsequently had successful relief after total replacement of the TMJ. One patient had further cryoanalgesia, one was referred for specialist pain management, and one controlled the pain with nortriptyline. Of the 17 cases studied, 2 had temporary complications after cryoanalgesia. Cryoanalgesia is a useful adjunct to the management of intractable pain in the TMJ. Short-term pain relief can be achieved, and long-term relief is possible in some, deferring more complex and costly treatments.     

Fibromyalgia: an update for oral health care providers

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a syndrome characterized by chronic widespread pain, stiffness, nonrestorative sleep, fatigue, and comorbid conditions. Fibromyalgia has undergone a major paradigm shift in recent years. It is no longer considered a musculoskeletal disorder per se; rather, it represents one end of a spectrum of disorders characterized by chronic widespread pain. Hence, oral health care providers may be the first to recognize signs and symptoms of this complex disorder and are often consulted to participate in the management of FM patients. This medical management update will review the epidemiology, classification, etiology and pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and therapeutic advances in FM. This review will also highlight issues that are important to the oral health care provider, including orofacial manifestations and dental considerations for patients with FM.     

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Clinical Practice Guideline for Prescribing Opioids: United States, 2022: What dentists need to know

BackgroundThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published the Clinical Practice Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Pain—United States, 2022 (CDCCPG) to replace the 2016 guideline. This guideline was designed to serve as a clinical tool to improve communication between clinicians and patients and empower them to make informed, person-centered decisions regarding pain management and the prescribing of opioids. It is intended for primary care and other clinicians, including dentists, who provide pain management for adults with acute, subacute, and chronic pain.Types of Studies ReviewedThis article summarizes the CDCCPG, with an emphasis on information of relevance to dentistry.ResultsFor dentists, the most important recommendations for pain management are that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications are first-line medications for acute dental pain, interdisciplinary care for chronic orofacial pain is indicated, and opioids should only be prescribed for acute dental pain for a maximum of 3 days after risk assessment.Practical ImplicationsThe CDCCPG contains a great deal of relevant information that can help dentists and dental specialists make safe, effective, and evidence-based decisions in providing pain control for their patients.     

An audit of 405 temporomandibular joint arthrocentesis with intra-articular morphine infusion

The management of refractory pain in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is both challenging and controversial. Arthrocentesis is a simple technique that can be used instead of more invasive procedures in patients with pain that fails to respond to conventional conservative measures. We undertook an audit of 405 arthrocenteses in 298 patients over a 10-year period who had refractory pain in the TMJ. The pain was assessed subjectively by a visual analogue scale, both before arthrocentesis and at 1 and 6 months, and 1 year afterwards. A significant reduction in pain score was found after arthrocentesis (P < 0.001) and 269 patients (90%) found the procedure beneficial. We recommend arthrocentesis as an effective, minimally invasive technique in patients with continuing pain in the TMJ that is unresponsive to conservative management.     

(ii) Spondylolysis & spondylolisthesis

Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis are not uncommon findings in the patient presenting with back pain. A full understanding of the natural progression of this disorder is important to guide correct management. Typically, non-surgical treatment modalities are the mainstay of treatment; however, careful assessment is required to allow identification of the patients for whom surgical intervention would be beneficial.A review of the aetiology, natural progression, clinical findings and radiological appearances is presented below, along with a consideration of management strategies that can be utilized in this condition.     

Dental perspectives on neuropathic origin

The most common cause of intraoral pain is odontogenic and rarely presents a diagnostic challenge. Pain in a tooth site area that is not dental or periodontal in origin may be difficult to diagnose and treat. Successful management of non-odontogenic pain complaints is inherently dependent on taking a detailed 'pain history'. Treatments that are irreversible and potentially harmful to the underlying dentoalveolar structures must be avoided when the diagnosis is uncertain. Information gleaned from the pain history usually provides a provisional or working diagnosis, and this diagnosis must later be confirmed by specific testing (based on response to medication trials, imaging, laboratory tests, etc.). Patients who suffer from chronic pain conditions are likely to show comorbidity with other pain problems (e.g., neuropathic pain with background muscle discomfort or temporomandibular disorders and headache problems). Thus, in more complex patients, the various elements that comprise the chronic pain condition must be identified and managed, for adequate resolution of the symptoms.     

Placebo hypoalgesic effects in pain: Potential applications in dental and orofacial pain management

Placebo and nocebo effects are present within every treatment and intervention, and can be purposefully enhanced and reduced, respectively, in order to improve patients’ clinical outcomes. A plethora of research has been conducted on the mechanisms of placebo hypoalgesia and nocebo hyperalgesia in experimental and clinical settings. However, its implications in particular clinical settings such as orthodontic pain management remain underexplored. We conducted a search of the literature regarding placebo analgesia, orthodontic pain management, and orofacial and dental pain. Articles were qualitatively assessed and selected based on the scope of this narrative review. Although no studies investigating the extent of the implications of the placebo and nocebo phenomena in the orthodontic clinical setting were found, we herein present a comprehensive review on the influences of placebo and nocebo effects in experimental and clinical pain management, as well as on the potential for engaging placebo-related endogenous pain modulation for orthodontic pain management. Ethical considerations for the clinical application of placebos are discussed, and future research directions are presented.