Editorial Commentary: Gadolinium Intra-Articular Contrast Magnetic Resonance Imaging Is Not Required for Every Patient Undergoing Hip Arthroscopy,but Contrast Magnetic Resonance Imaging Plus Computed Tomography With 3-Dimensional Reconstruction Are Essential for Patients Requiring Revision

For arthroscopic hip surgeons, accurate identification of symptomatic pathology is required. Gadolinium-contrast magnetic resonance arthrography (MRA) is an important imaging option but not necessarily for every patient. Contrast carries some risks, and for patients with acute pathology, effusion may mitigate against the need for contrast. In addition, higher field 3T magnetic resonance imaging shows exceptional detail, comparable sensitivity, and superior specificity to MRA. However, in the revision setting, contrast is indicated to delineate recurrent labral tear versus postsurgical changes, as well as to best show the degree of capsular deficiency. In addition, in the revision setting, computed tomography scan without contrast with 3-dimensional reconstruction also is indicated to evaluate for acetabular dysplasia, surgical over-resection on the acetabular and femoral side, and femoral version. Each patient should be carefully evaluated; MRA with intra-articular contrast is a valuable tool, but not always required.     

Magnetic resonance arthrography

For decades, fluoroscopic arthrography was the only method available to image a joint with contrast enhancement. Advances in CT led to the natural development of CT arthrography. Development of MRI and its capability for multiplanar imaging led to direct magnetic resonance arthrography (MRA). This technique has been performed since 1987 and has surpassed CT arthrography in popularity in the United States. Indirect MRA developed subsequently to offer a less invasive alternative. This article presents an overview of direct MRA and addresses joint-specific issues regarding direct MRA. An overview of indirect MRA also is provided.     

The use of noncontrast magnetic resonance imaging in evaluating meniscal repair: comparison with conventional arthrography

The objective of this study was to investigate whether new and different specialized fast spin-echo techniques could be used to accentuate signal within the site of meniscal repair, obviating the need for intra-articular contrast. With the use of the frequency- selective fat suppression technique, we were able to accentuate fluid in the repair site because of the inherent extended dynamic contrast range of the technique. We performed a blinded study to correlate specialized magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences with standard contrast arthrography, which was used as a standard of reference. Thirty-six patients (36 meniscal repairs) agreed to have MRI followed by contrast arthrography of the affected knee, irrespective of their clinical symptoms. We found that MRI had a very high correlation with arthrography in assessing meniscal repair, with statistical significance. In eight cases that had a second-look arthroscopy, we were able to see that MRI proved to be more accurate than arthrography in discriminating partial or complete healing. This is the first report to show that specialized noncontrast MRI sequences are more effective in evaluating the physiological state of the repaired meniscus, without artifactual distention of the joint recesses by contrast and air. Noncontrast MRI can obviate the need for arthrography in assessment of meniscal repair.Arthroscopy 1998 Jan-Feb;14(1):2-8     

MRI在常见肩关节疾病诊断中的应用

目的 探讨ＭＲＩ对慢性肩关节疼痛的诊断和鉴别诊断的重要性。方法 本组通过７０例８６肩的ＭＲＩ肩关节造影与手术发现结果的比较。评价肩关节造和ＭＲＩ在诊断肩袖疾忠和肩不稳定的应用价值。结果 在诊断肩袖完全撕裂中,关节造影的敏感性９１％,特异性为１００％,ＭＲＩ的敏感性为９５％,特异性为８８％。ＭＲＩ不但能够准确显示肩袖撕裂的部位。尚能显示出其它相关组织的病理改变。关节造影难以显示肩袖不全撕裂,ＭＲＩ虽     

The role of radiocarpal injection arthrography and magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of triangular fibrocartilage complex injuries

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MR Arthrography of the Wrist: Controversies and Concepts

Magnetic resonance arthrography (MRA) has become the preferred modality for imaging patients with internal derangement of the wrist. However, several aspects of MRA use need to be clarified before a standardized approach to the imaging of internal derangement of the wrist can be developed. The objective of the study is to evaluate the efficiency of different magnetic resonance (MR) sequences in the detection of lesions of the triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) and scapholunate and lunotriquetral ligaments on direct MRA. Thirty-one consecutive direct magnetic resonance arthrographic examinations of the wrist using a wrist surface coil were performed for the assessment of the TFCC and intrinsic ligaments on a 1.5-T MR imaging system (Signa; 16 channel, Excite, GE Healthcare, Milwaukee, WI, USA). All patients had wrist pain, and in six cases, there was associated clinical carpal instability. The presence, location, and extent of TFCC, scapholunate ligament (SLL), and lunotriquetral ligament (LTL) lesions on T1 fat-saturated, multiplanar gradient recalled (MPGR) and short tau inversion recovery (STIR) images were identified, compared, and analyzed. Forty-one lesions of the TFCC, SLL, and LTL were visualized on contrast-sensitive (T1 fat-saturated) images in 23/31 (74.2%) patients. Twenty-one lesions of the TFCC and intrinsic ligaments were visualized on noncontrast-sensitive (MPGR and STIR) images (15 tears of the TFCC and six tears of the SLL and LTL). All of these lesions were seen on T1 fat-saturated images; 48.8% (20/41) lesions seen on T1 fat-saturated images (eight tears of TFCC and 12 tears of SLL and LTT) were not seen on MPGR and/or STIR images. Superior contrast resolution, joint distention, and the flow of contrast facilitate the diagnosis of lesions of the TFCC and intrinsic ligaments on contrast-sensitive sequences making MRA the preferred modality for imaging internal derangements of the wrist. Little agreement exists regarding the value and location of perforations of the intrinsic ligaments given that both traumatic and degenerative perforations may be symptomatic. Noncommunicating defects of the ulnar attachments of the triangular fibrocartilage (TFC), tears of the dorsal segment of the SLL, and defects at the lunate attachment of the SLL have a higher likelihood of being symptomatic and caused by trauma rather than by degenerative perforation. Although no consensus exists, it would appear that most arthrographies should be started with a radiocarpal injection. Injection into the distal radioulnar joint should be added if no communicational defects are visualized following radiocarpal injection in patients with ulnar-sided wrist pain.     

Treatment of meniscal injuries in young athletes

The young, active patient with a meniscal tear poses a significant challenge for the surgeon. Multiple factors influence the treatment of meniscal pathology and the ultimate goal of meniscal surgery should be to remove only torn and nonfunctional tissue by limited meniscectomy or to repair amenable tears. The chondroprotective significance of the meniscus has influenced the current treatment of meniscal injuries in young athletes with the emphasis on repairing meniscus tears to include complex tears and tears in the avascular zone. Partial meniscectomy and meniscal repair techniques have provided good long-term clinical success and return to activity. The decision to debride versus repair a meniscus depends on tear pattern, location, and the patient's willingness to comply with postoperative restrictions. In patients with symptomatic meniscus deficiency, meniscal allograft transplant is an option that may provide pain relief but may not allow return to sports. The purpose of this article is to provide a succinct review of the diagnostic and management principles for the young, active patient with a meniscal tear.     

Three-dimensional reconstructed magnetic resonance scans:Accuracy in identifying and defining knee meniscal tears

AIM To determine whether three-dimensional(3D) reconstruction from conventional magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) is able to accurately detect a meniscal tear, and define the configuration.METHODS Thirty-three patients' 3T MRI scan data were collected and sagittal uni-planar 3D reconstructions performed from the preoperative MRI. There were 24 meniscal tears in 24 patients, and nine controls. All patients had arthroscopic corroboration of MRI findings. Two independent observers prospectively reported on all 33 reconstructions. Meniscal tear presence or absence was noted, and tear configuration subsequently categorised as either radial, bucket-handle, parrot beak, horizontal or complex.RESULTS Identification of control menisci or meniscal tear presence was excellent(Accuracy: observer 1 = 90.9%; observer 2 = 81.8%). Of the tear configurations, bucket handle tears were accurately identified(Accuracy observer 1 and 2 = 80%). The remaining tear configurations were notaccurately discernable.CONCLUSION Uni-planar 3D reconstruction from 3T MRI knee scan sequences are useful in identifying normal menisci and menisci with bucket-handle tears. Advances in MRI sequencing and reconstruction software are awaited for accurate identification of the remaining meniscal tear configurations.     

Intrasubstance meniscal tears

Summary Forty-five athletes with the clinical features of a possible meniscus lesion underwent evaluation by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). All the patients examined had pain in the medial or lateral compartment on effort, but at least three of the typical symptoms of a meniscus tear (effusion, restricted movement, impactions, blockades, synovial reaction) were at the same time absent. A meniscus lesion was identified on MRI in 43 patients (95.5%). Thirty-five patients (77.7%) had a pure intrasubstance tear, with a predominance of the linear grade-II lesion type (n = 31; 68.8%). Exactly this type of lesion in the posterior horn represents the most frequent cause of false-negative results in other investigational procedures (arthrography, arthrotomy, arthroscopy). In ten cases conservative treatment was performed, 28 patients had a rationale or partial meniscectomy, and in 7 cases refixation of the meniscus was performed. Forty-two patients were free of symptoms at follow-up with this treatment. The advantages of MRI in the diagnosis of a meniscus lesion are: early detection of grade-I and grade-II lesions, visualization of all the extra-articular structures, no radiation loading, noninvasive investigation, definition of a surgical intervention, possibility of monitoring the clinical course, and postoperative follow-up. MRI is indicated when there is a suspected significant meniscus lesion but typical symptoms are absent, in children, and in all cases where conservative treatment seems possible. In only 10% of our patients was any of these indications present. During the period of the study (4 years) we performed 489 arthroscopic operations on menisci with no additional investigations. In summary, MRI can be very helpful for the classification and the surgical intervention, but the patients must be specifically selected and the interpretation needs a lot of experience.     

MRI in dislocation and instability of the shoulder joint

The value of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in shoulder instability depends on its ability to demonstrate pathologic lesions within the joint. Traumatic dislocation in particular often results in capsulo-labral-avulsion, stretching of the joint capsule and impression fracture at the humeral head. Various MR weightings, including spin echo and gradient echo, are useful at the shoulder. A surface coil should be used. Image planes are oriented at the scapula. A capsulo-labral-avulsion can not be reliably demonstrated on non-contrast imaging in the absence of intra-articular effusion. With indirect arthrography, gadolinium is intravenously injected and enhances the articular space. With direct arthrography, gadolinium or saline are injected into the joint, optimising the demonstration of labral lesions. In grade I lesions, fluid enters the lesion without deformation or detachment of the labrum. In grade II lesions, the labrum is of abnormal size or shape, but still attached to the glenoid. In grade III lesions, the labrum is completely detached. Sensitivity of magnetic resonance arthrography for labral lesions is 90% and specificity is 95%. Impression fractures at the humeral head are well demonstrated but avulsion fractures at the glenoid are not. Lesions at the joint capsule cannot be seen. Decisions relating to shoulder instability are primarily based on patient history and physical examination. MRI adds valuable information, particular in unclear clinical settings.     

磁共振肩关节造影技术诊断肩关节损伤的临床应用

目的探讨磁共振(MR)肩关节造影诊断肩关节损伤的临床价值。方法回顾性分析20例肩关节损伤患者常规MRI和MR肩关节造影的影像表现,并与肩关节镜手术结果对照。结果关节镜诊断结果:肩袖部分撕裂17例,肩袖全层撕裂3例,肩袖撕裂并发盂唇损伤5例。MRI诊断结果:肩袖部分撕裂16例,肩袖全层撕裂3例,肩袖撕裂并发盂唇损伤1例。MR肩关节造影诊断结果:肩袖部分撕裂17例,肩袖全层撕裂3例,肩袖撕裂并发盂唇损伤5例。MR肩关节造影诊断结果与关节镜结果一致。结论MR肩关节造影较常规MRI检查能够提高肩关节损伤的诊断准确性。     

肩袖损伤诊断中肩关节造影和MRI的敏感性和特异性比较

目的 通过随访分析,比较肩关节造影和ＭＲＩ诊断户袖部分和完全撕裂的敏感性和特异性。方法 对５３例怀疑有肩袖损伤（包括部分撕裂和完全撕裂）患者的术前关节造影和ＭＲＩ检查结果与术中发现进行比较分析。结果 肩关节造影、ＭＲＩ诊断肩袖部分撕裂的敏感性分别为７０％和８０％,特异性均为７５％。诊断肩袖完全撕裂的敏感性分别为８７％和９０％,特异性分别为１００％和７５％。结论 关节造影与ＭＲＩ诊断肩袖损伤敏感性无     

创伤性髋关节脱位合并膝关节损伤的临床研究

目的探讨创伤性髋关节脱位中合并的膝关节损伤的发病情况.方法 2004年4月至2010年5月本组共收治创伤性髋关节脱位患者28例,通过同侧膝关节的病史、体格检查和MRI检查,研究所有创伤性髋关节脱位患者同侧膝关节的损伤情况.结果 28例髋关节脱位患者中有21例（75%）同侧膝关节疼痛.体格检查中25例（89%）发现软组织损伤的可见证据,2例（7%）交叉韧带或侧副韧带损伤,10例（36%）膝关节积液,4例（14%）半月板损伤的体征.28例膝关节MRI检查中1例产生伪影予排除,其余27例中有25例MRI上发现异常信号,其中膝关节积液（37%）、骨挫伤（33%）、半月板撕裂（30%）是最常见的异常.结论 该研究中发现创伤性髋关节脱位患者合并同侧膝关节损伤的发病率较高,骨挫伤可能为髋关节脱位后同侧膝关节持续性疼痛提供合理解释.本研究推荐常规应用MRI进行膝关节检查,以发现单靠病史和体格检查可能被遗漏的关节内病变.     

Magnetic resonance arthrographic evaluation of syndesmotic diastasis in ankle fractures

Introduction We examined whether magnetic resonance arthrography (MRA) contributes to the diagnosis of syndesmotic complex disruption in ankle fractures. Patients suffering syndesmotic diastasis according to conventional radiographic criteria were evaluated by MRI and MRA.Material and methods Fifteen patients (15 ankles) with Denis-Weber type B and C fractures and were suspected of having syndesmotic diastasis considering tibiofibular clear space and tibiofibular overlap measurements in conventional radiographs were prospectively evaluated by MRI and MRA methods. Syndesmotic diastasis was diagnosed by radiographic, MRI, and MRA findings and by intraoperative observation and assessment criteria. Differences between MRI and MRA findings were tested statistically. Conventional radiography, MRI, and MRA results were analyzed by two independent observers, and interobserver concordance was also assessed.Results In 15 patients regarded to have syndesmotic diastasis on conventional radiography the diagnosis was confirmed in 8 (53.3%) with MRI and 12 (80%) with MRA. Following overall assessment 13 of 15 patients (86.6%) were determined to have diastasis. There were statistically significant differences in diagnosis after MRI and after MRA. There was interobserver concordance in conventional radiographic, MRA assessments, and in assessments for anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments separately in MRI.Conclusions These results suggest that conventional radiography and MRI is not sufficient in assessing syndesmotic disruption, and that MRA can make an important contribution to diagnosis in ankle fractures.     

Arthroscopic meniscectomy for discoid lateral meniscus in children

We reviewed the cases of forty-six children who were less than fifteen years old and in whom total, subtotal, or partial arthroscopic meniscectomy was performed for symptomatic discoid lateral meniscus in fifty-three knees. The average length of follow-up was 31.2 months. A meniscal tear was evident in each knee. The extent of the meniscectomy depended on the site and shape of the tear, as did the symptoms and signs. We tried to establish the width of partial meniscectomy of a discoid meniscus that would prevent new tears.     

Osteonecrosis of the knee following arthroscopic meniscectomy in patients over 50-years old

We reviewed eight patients over 50-years old, with an initial diagnosis of medial meniscal tear confirmed with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and with no evidence of osteonecrosis. After arthroscopic meniscectomy, all patients had recurrent aggravated knee pain and reevaluation with MRI showed images compatible with osteonecrosis. The average age was 65 years (range 54 to 75 years). The mean time from MRI to surgery was 8 weeks (range 1 to 28 weeks). In five patients a total meniscectomy, and in three a partial meniscectomy with recontouring of the meniscus were performed. Surgical treatment was initially successful, but all eight patients returned to our office with recurrent aggravated pain in the treated knee. Reevaluation with MRI, at an average of 18 weeks postoperatively, found abnormalities at the medial condyle consistent with osteonecrosis. The purpose of this study is to report a potentially serious outcome after arthroscopic meniscectomy in patients over 50-years old.     

The association between meniscal and cruciate ligament damage and knee pain in community residents

Objective

To describe the frequency of meniscal and cruciate ligament damage by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and to examine its association with knee pain in community residents in Korea.

Methods

Participants were randomly chosen regardless of knee osteoarthritis (OA) or pain from the population-based Hallym Aging Study. Demographic and knee pain data were obtained by questionnaire. Radiographic evaluations consisted of weight-bearing knee A-P radiographs and 1.5-T MRI scans. We assessed the integrities of the menisci and cruciate ligaments in the dominant knee of subjects without knee pain or in the more symptomatic knee among subjects with knee pain, and examined their association with knee pain using a logistic regression model.

Results

The mean age of the 358 study subjects was 71.8 years, and 51.4% were women. Meniscal and cruciate ligament damage were present in 49.7% and 8.0% of men and in 71.2% and 26.9% of women, respectively. The presence of meniscal damage was significantly associated with the presence of knee pain among subjects without radiographic knee OA (ROA), but not among subjects with ROA. The presence of cruciate ligament tear was associated with knee pain in subjects with or without ROA. The severity of knee pain was significantly correlated with medial meniscal damage grade but not with cruciate ligament tear.

Conclusion

Incidental meniscal or cruciate findings on MRI were common in this elderly population. Among subjects without ROA, the presence of meniscal or cruciate damage was significantly associated with knee pain. The medial meniscal grade was significantly correlated with knee pain severity.     

Meniscal tears in children and adolescents: results of operative treatment

The goal of this study was to evaluate the results of meniscal repair in children and adolescents by a retrospective case series. Twelve arthroscopic-assisted meniscal repairs were performed on 12 patients younger than 17 years of age (8-16 years, mean 13 years). The anterior cruciate ligament was torn in three cases. Eight lesions involved the lateral meniscus and four involved the medial meniscus; there were no discoid menisci. All patients were seen at an average of 3 years 1 month follow-up (range, 2-4 years 10 months). Three patients required subsequent surgery for partial meniscectomy. We evaluated the remaining nine patients by clinical examination, International Knee Documentation Committee clinical score, Lysh?lm score, Tegner's activity, and by computed tomography arthrogram or magnetic resonance imaging. Seven patients were asymptomatic at follow-up, two reported occasional pain, and none had experienced symptoms of locking. Their average Lysh?lm score and Tegner's activity were 96.3 and 6.6, respectively. Eight patients were International Knee Documentation Committee A and one was International Knee Documentation Committee B. Healing status was assessed at follow-up in eight patients by computed tomography arthrogram or magnetic resonance imaging: the tear was considered as completely healed in three patients. The apparent failure rate was 66%. Indications for meniscal repair in children are not actually established. The pejorative outcome of meniscectomy at a young age has led us to consider symptomatic meniscal tears for repair. Objective results of meniscal healing are poor. The method to assess healing of the repaired menisci objectively is still a matter of debate.     

The labrum: structure, function, and injury with femoro-acetabular impingement

Background

The recognition of the importance of femoro-acetabular impingement (FAI) as a potential cause of hip pain has been stimulated by major efforts to salvage hip joints by reconstruction to prevent or delay the need for replacement. A previous review addressed the nature of FAI, the various types, and how to make the diagnosis. When FAI occurs, the structure between the femur and acetabular rim, the labrum, is initially impinged upon and subsequently injured.

Method

Injury to the labrum should be recognized when treating the osseous causes of FAI. Preserving or recovering labral function, enhancing hip stability and protecting the articular surface, is critical to restoring the hip to normal or near-normal mechanical and physiologic function. The present review collected the varied essential information about the labrum in a succinct manner, independent of treatment algorithms.

Results/conclusion

Advanced knowledge of the labrum is presented, including the anatomy, circulation, histology, embryology, and neurology, as well as how the labrum tears, the types of tears, and how to make the diagnosis. The advantages and limitations of diagnostic magnetic resonance techniques are discussed, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), indirect magnetic resonance arthrography (i-MRA), and direct magnetic resonance arthrography (d-MRA). The review recognizes the complexity of the labrum and provides a greater understanding of how the labrum is capable of stabilizing the joint and protecting the articular surface of the hip. This information will act as a guide in developing treatment plans when treating FAI.     

Accuracy of shoulder joint injections with ultrasound guidance: Confirmed by magnetic resonance arthrography

BACKGROUNDIntra-articular glenohumeral joint injections are essential procedures for treating various shoulder disorders. Fluoroscopy-guided injections have been extensively used; however, they pose a risk of radiation exposure and are expensive and time-consuming. Recently, it has been suggested that ultrasound-guided injections are accurate and cost effective procedures.AIMTo evaluate the accuracy of ultrasound-guided glenohumeral injections using a posterior approach that is confirmed using magnetic resonance arthrography (MRA).METHODSThe study included 179 shoulders of patients with recurrent anterior instability (150 patients; 103 and 76 right and left shoulders, respectively; 160 males and 19 females; average age = 20.5 years; age range: 14-63 years) who underwent MRA for preoperative diagnosis. They were injected with 12 mL lidocaine (1%) using the ultrasound-guided posterior approach and then underwent magnetic resonance imaging. Two shoulder surgeons, except for the injector, evaluated the transverse relaxation (T2)-weighted images of axial planes and classified the intra-articular condition of injected contrast into three groups based on one of the three following scenarios: no leakage, injection into the glenohumeral joint without leakage; minor leakage, practical intra-articular injection with some leakage outside the posterior rotator cuffs; and major leakage, inaccurate injection with mass leakage without any contrast into the joint. The inter-rater reliability between two assessors was also evaluated by calculating Cohen’s kappa coefficient. The learning curve was assessed regarding the inaccurate injection rate by analyzing Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient.RESULTSOf the 179 injections, 163 shoulders (91.0%) had no leakage, 10 shoulders (5.6%) had minor leakage, and six shoulders (3.4%) had major leakage. In total, 173 shoulders (96.6%) were intra-articularly injected; thus, we could detect anterior labrum and capsular pathologies. Regarding the inter-rater reliability, the kappa coefficient was 0.925, indicating consistency in the evaluations by both examiners. Regression analysis of the inaccurate injection rate for assessingtechnical learning showed a logarithmic curve with a downward trend (R² = 0.887, P < 0.001). Three (50%) of the six inaccurate injections classified into “major leakage” were observed in the first 30 injections, indicating that the accurate injection showed a leaning effect.CONCLUSIONUltrasound-guided intra-articular glenohumeral injections using a posterior approach had high accuracy; however, injection accuracy depends on clinical experience.