Simultaneous outbreaks of rotavirus and respiratory syncytial virus in Paris: a 12-year survey

OBJECTIVE: The authors had for aim to study the coincidence of RSV and rotavirus epidemic peaks in pediatric patients hospitalized in the Paris area. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective hospital-based monocentric cohort study was made over a 12-year period (1993-2004). Clinical and laboratory findings were prospectively collected on admission. RESULTS: Three thousand and four hundred ninety-six stool samples were positive for rotavirus; 3,507 nasopharyngeal aspirates were positive for RSV. The coincidence of epidemic peaks for both viruses in November, December, and January was observed during the 12 years of the study. CONCLUSION: The exact coincidence of winter outbreaks of RSV and rotavirus is a characteristic of the Paris area. It contributes to increase overcrowding in pediatric units and nosocomial infections.     

Incidence of nosocomial rotavirus infections, symptomatic and asymptomatic, in breast-fed and non-breast-fed infants

Rotavirus is one of the most important aetiological agents of nosocomial infections in childhood. We studied the incidence of nosocomial rotavirus infections in 420 patients (age range 1-18 months) consecutively admitted from 1 December 1999 to 31 May 2000 to the infant ward of the Department of Paediatrics, University of Turin. We also evaluated the protective effect of breast feeding. Faecal specimens were collected from every child (whether developing diarrhoeic symptoms or not) and tested for rotavirus during hospitalization and 72 h after discharge. The incidence of rotavirus nosocomial infections was 27.7%. The incidence of symptomatic nosocomial infections was 16.8%, and the incidence of asymptomatic infections was 10.9%. The attack rate of the infections that occurred during hospitalization was 11.8%, while for those occurring after discharge, it was 15.9%. Rotavirus infection, on average, prolonged hospital stay from 5.2 to 6.4 days. 10.6% of breast-fed infants and 32.4% of non-breast-fed infants contracted rotavirus infection (P<0.005). None of the breast-fed infants who contracted rotavirus infection developed diarrhoeic symptoms.     

Prospective study of rotaviral infections in children hospitalized at the Clinic of Pediatric Infectious Diseases in Białystok in 2003

Rotavirus is the most common gastrointestinal pathogen in infants and young children. The aim of this study was to determine the role of rotavirus in acute diarrhea in children hospitalized in Pediatric Infectious Diseases Clinic in Bialystok. 658 children aged 0-7 years admitted to the ward: 466 children with gastroenteritis and another 192 without any diarrheic symptoms were tested for rotavirus infection by latex agglutination. Rotavirus was detected in 16.1% stool specimens collected from children with acute diarrhea. None of patients without diarrhea was positive for rotavirus on admission--2% of this patients acquired symptomatic rotavirus infection during hospitalization. This study delivers epidemiological data on rotavirus infection and shows the need of further study on etiology of viral gastroenteritis in children in our district.     

武汉市住院婴幼儿医院感染轮状病毒现状及危险因素分析

目的 分析武汉市住院婴幼儿医院感染轮状病毒(RV)的现状及危险因素,为临床诊治和控制医院感染提供科学依据.方法 回顾性收集医院2008年1月-2010年12月住院6月龄～2岁患儿资料5904例,对感染轮状病毒的患儿粪便采用胶体金免疫层析法,进行RV检测,采用单因素分析法分析住院婴幼儿医院感染轮状病毒的相关因素,进一步采用 logistic回归分析确定感染独立危险因素.结果 3年间住院腹泻婴幼儿轮状病毒感染率为25.9％,其中2008-2010年平均感染率分别为26.5％、20.8％和29.8％;轮状病毒感染全年均可发生,其高峰为9-12月份,占阳性总数的62.8％,多因素logistic回归分析结果表明,走廊加床、母乳喂养、呼吸道疾病、住院时间、基础疾病进入回归方程.结论 轮状病毒感染在武汉市住院婴幼儿中较普遍,是引起6月龄～2岁婴幼儿病毒感染性腹泻的主要病原体.新生儿RV感染情况不容忽视,RV腹泻具有明显的季节性,在流行季节应做好预防及保护措施,走廊加床、母乳喂养、呼吸道疾病、住院时间、基础疾病为婴幼儿医院感染轮状病毒的独立影响因素.     

The role of Clostridium difficile and viruses as causes of nosocomial diarrhea in children.

OBJECTIVE: We report surveillance of nosocomial diarrhea in children at our institution during the past decade and note different epidemiology of diarrhea due to viruses and Clostridium difficile. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study. SETTING: A university-affiliated pediatric hospital with 180 beds serving an urban area and providing referral care for the Maritime Provinces of Canada. PARTICIPANTS: Children younger than 18 years. METHODS: Surveillance was conducted from 1991 to 1999 using personal contact with personnel and review of microbiology and medical records. Nosocomial diarrhea was defined as loose stools occurring more than 48 hours after admission, with at least two loose stools in 12 hours and no likely non-infectious cause. RESULTS: Nosocomial diarrhea was the third most common nosocomial infection (217 of 1,466; 15%), after bloodstream and respiratory infections, with from 0.5 to 1 episode per 1,000 patient-days. Of 217 nosocomial diarrhea episodes, 122 (56%) had identified pathogens: C. difficile (39 of 122; 32%), rotavirus (38 of 122; 31%), adenovirus (36 of 122; 30%), and other viral (9 of 122; 7%). The median age was 1.3 years (range, 11 days to 17.9 years), 0.80 year for children with viral diarrhea, 3.9 years for children with C. difficile, and 1.5 years for children with diarrhea without a causative organism identified (P< .0001). Most children with nosocomial diarrhea were incontinent (diapered) at the time of their first episode (138 of 185; 75%), but preexisting incontinence was more common in those with viral diarrhea (93%) compared with those with no organism identified (71%) or those with C. difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) (49%) (P <.0001). CONCLUSIONS: C. difficile is the single most common cause of nosocomial diarrhea in our tertiary-care center, although all viral pathogens account for 69% of cases. Diapered status appears to be a risk factor for CDAD in children, and CDAD occurs more often in older children than viral nosocomial diarrhea. Further characterization of risk factors for, and morbidity associated with, nosocomial CDAD in children is warranted.     

儿科病区医院感染流行病学调查

目的 了解儿科医院感染的流行病学分布情况,为有效预防和控制医院感染提供依据.方法 以儿科病区2009年6月-2011年6月的11 382例住院患儿为对象,调查其医院感染发生情况.结果 医院感染率为3.92％,例次率为4.26％,感染部位以呼吸道为主,占51.13％;第三季度的医院感染率最高;年龄小、住院时间长的患儿更易发生医院感染,各种易感阴素在发生感染的患儿中普遍存在.结论 了解儿科医院感染的流行病学特点,有利于采取积极有效的预防控制措施,减少医院感染的发生.     

攀枝花地区0～5岁儿童轮状病毒腹泻的分子流行病学研究

目的探讨攀枝花地区2009年10～12月婴幼儿轮状病毒腹泻的分子流行病学特征及临床特点。方法采用胶体金免疫层析法、逆转录-聚合酶链法(RT-PCR)对收集的婴幼儿腹泻标本270份进行轮状病毒检测及A组轮状病毒常见的G、P基因分型研究。结果 270份腹泻标本轮状病毒阳性率为38.6%;6月～2岁年龄组的阳性率为45.4%(89/196),2～5岁年龄组的阳性率为20.3%(15/74),两组对比差异有统计学意义(P﹤0.005);104例被检测的A组轮状病毒腹泻粪便标本中G分型以G2为主,P分型以P4为主。结论轮状病毒是攀枝花地区婴幼儿腹泻的主要病原,G2型和P4型为2009年的优势毒株。该病毒引起的小儿腹泻主要发生在秋冬季,6月～2岁婴幼儿是轮状病毒的易感人群。     

The epidemiology of rotavirus diarrhea in Latin America. Anticipating rotavirus vaccines.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the disease burden and characterize the epidemiology of rotavirus diarrhea in Latin America. METHODS: We conducted a literature review of studies of children < 5 years of age who were hospitalized or seen as outpatients for diarrhea and for whom rotavirus was sought as the etiologic agent of the diarrhea. This review included inpatient and outpatient studies published since 1998 that included at least 100 children and reported surveillance activities lasting at least 12 consecutive months. RESULTS: A total of 18 inpatient and 10 outpatient studies met the criteria for inclusion in this review. Rotavirus was detected in a median of 31% of inpatients (range, 16%-52%) and 30.5% of outpatients (range, 4%-42%). The median detection rate was higher in studies that used an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (inpatients 38%, outpatients 33%) versus less sensitive methods of detection. The age distribution of rotavirus disease varied among countries, with 65%-85% of children hospitalized in the first year of life. Most countries had rotavirus admissions year round, and rotavirus generally exhibited a winter seasonal peak in both temperate and tropical climates. CONCLUSIONS: The heavy burden of disease attributable to rotavirus in Latin America suggests that vaccines currently being tested could have considerable impact in preventing hospitalizations, clinic visits, and deaths. The findings of the young age distribution of patients highlight the importance of early immunization for the success of a vaccine program. The data suggest that future surveillance for rotavirus diarrhea in Latin America should use a standardized surveillance protocol with an ELISA for detection. Data from surveillance studies will be critical to monitor the impact of the future introduction of vaccines.     

2005—2008年广州市其他感染性腹泻流行特征分析

目的了解广州市其他感染性腹泻流行病学特征，为有效控制感染性腹泻提供依据。方法对广州市2005—2008年疾病监测信息报告系统中上报的其他感染性腹泻病例进行描述性流行病学分析。结果2005—2008年广州市共报告其他感染性腹泻病例55081例，年发病率介于108．83／10万～152．78／10万之间，呈逐年上升趋势。5岁以下年龄组占全部发病数的64．49％。10—12月为发病高峰。报告发病率居前5位的地区为南沙、黄埔、花都、越秀和番禺。实验室诊断病例中，8789例有明确病原体信息，占报告病例总数的16．0％，其中轮状病毒、腺病毒及两者合并感染分别占实验室诊断病例的75．49％、10．83％和13．49％。共报告其他感染性腹泻暴发疫情7起，6起由诺如病毒引起。结论广州市2005—2008年其他感染性腹泻流行主要集中于0～5岁散居儿童，秋冬季是其他感染性腹泻的好发季节，轮状病毒为主要病原体，且存在轮状病毒和腺病毒交叉感染。降低轮状病毒性腹泻发病率是有效控制感染性腹泻的重要措施之一。     

Outbreak of rotavirus gastroenteritis with high mortality, Nicaragua, 2005.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated a nationwide outbreak of severe rotavirus gastroenteritis in Nicaragua in children under 5 years old, leading to many consultations, hospitalizations, and deaths. We questioned whether a vaccine might have prevented these illnesses and deaths, sought to identify risk factors for death, and developed a clinical profile of children hospitalized with diarrhea. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study to determine whether children who died had access to routine immunizations, a proxy predicting access to a rotavirus vaccine. We identified risk factors for death among children who died in the outbreak compared with surviving age-matched controls with diarrhea. We collected stools, clinical data, and immunization data on children hospitalized for diarrhea to test for rotavirus, develop the profile, and forecast future access to a rotavirus vaccine. RESULTS: The outbreak from February to April 2005 caused 47 470 consultations and 52 deaths. Approximately 80% of cases and controls and 60% of children hospitalized with diarrhea had access to routine immunizations and would likely have had access to a rotavirus vaccine. With a vaccine efficacy of 85%, up to 51% of severe rotavirus cases and up to 68% of deaths could have been prevented if a rotavirus vaccine were available as part of routine childhood immunizations. Study of 35 case-control pairs indicated that severe illnesses, malnutrition, and care by traditional healers were risk factors for death. Rotavirus was found in 42% of samples from hospitalized children and was associated with severe disease and dehydration. CONCLUSIONS: The impact of the seasonal outbreaks of rotavirus disease could be diminished with a rotavirus vaccine, improvements in oral rehydration programs, and training of traditional healers in the proper management of children with acute diarrhea.     

Does Co-Infection with Giardia Lamblia Modulate the Clinical Characteristics of Enteric Infections in Young Children?

BACKGROUND: Giardia lamblia (G. lamblia) is a prevalent enteric pathogen causing both asymptomatic carriage and diarrheal illness among children worldwide. In this study we examined the hypothesis that G. lamblia may modulate the effect of other enteric pathogens during concurrent infection. METHODS: Bedouin (n = 238) infants were followed from birth to ages 18-23 months. Morbidity was ascertained by weekly home interviews and infant's stools were collected fortnightly. The risk for and severity of diarrheal disease were compared between episodes caused by enteric pathogens other than G. lamblia alone and G. lamblia-mixed episodes. RESULTS: In 59 of 293(20.1%) diarrhea episodes two or more pathogens were detected. In two thirds of the mixed episodes G. lamblia was involved. Neither the incidence of diarrhea nor the mean diarrheal episode duration differed between follow up months in which G. lamblia was or was not detected, when age specific or age adjusted values were compared. There were no differences in severity of episodes for single or G. lamblia-mixed infections except for rotavirus. Episodes with rotavirus alone were more severe as compared to episodes where co-infection with G. lamblia was found. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study do not confirm the hypothesis that G. lamblia modulates the clinical effect of infection with other enteric agents. However, the findings of the change in severity of infection with rotavirus suggest that this question warrants further investigation.     

Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of rotavirus genotypes in Thailand between 2007 and 2009

Rotaviruses are the most common cause of severe diarrhea among infants and young children worldwide, especially in developing countries. In Thailand, rotavirus has presented a major public health problem causing severe diarrhea in infants and young children. It was responsible for about one-third of diarrheal diseases in hospitalized patients. In this study, we have analyzed the distribution and performed molecular characterization of rotaviruses circulating in infants and young children with diarrhea admitted to the city and rural hospitals in Thailand between July 2007 and May 2009. Group A human rotavirus was detected in 158 (28.4%) of 557 fecal specimens by RT-PCR. The peak incidence of infection was found in the winter months between December and March. The G1P[8] strain was identified as the most prevalent (49.4%) followed by G9P[8] (22.2%), G2P[4] (20.2%) and G3P[8] (0.6%). The uncommon strains G12P[8], G12P[6] and G3P[9] were also detected. Phylogenetic analysis of selected G and P genotypes isolated in this study was performed to compare with the reference strains from different countries. Emergence of G12 in the northern part of Thailand was observed and phylogenetic analysis demonstrated close relation between Thai isolates and strains from India. The present study reveals the recurring changing genotypes of rotavirus circulating in Thailand. The genetic association between isolates from Thailand and other countries ought to be considered with regard to local and global dissemination of rotavirus as it is crucial for prevention especially, with respect to vaccine implementation.     

Human rotavirus G9 and G3 as major cause of diarrhea in hospitalized children, Spain

In Spain, diarrhea remains a major cause of illness among infants and young children. To determine the prevalence of rotavirus genotypes and temporal and geographic differences in strain distribution, a structured surveillance study of hospitalized children <5 years of age with diarrhea was initiated in different regions of Spain during 2005. Rotavirus was detected alone in samples from 362 (55.2%) samples and as a coinfection with other viruses in 41 samples (6.3%). Enteropathogenic bacterial agents were detected in 4.9% of samples; astrovirus and norovirus RNA was detected in 3.2% and 12.0% samples, respectively; and adenovirus antigen was detected in 1.8% samples. Including mixed infections, the most predominant G type was G9 (50.6%), followed by G3 (33.0%) and G1 (20.2%). Infection with multiple rotavirus strains was detected in >11.4% of the samples studied during 2005.     

脊柱外科患者医院感染因素分析及护理对策

目的 探讨脊柱外科患者发生医院感染的相关因素,制定预防与控制医院感染的对策.方法 对2006年1月-2010年12月脊柱外科医院感染患者的情况进行统计分析.结果 4057例住院患者中发生医院感染282例、314例次,医院感染率6.95％、例次感染率7.74％;不同原发疾病中骨折脱位、退行性改变的感染率为11.80％、5.22％;感染部位主要为下呼吸道、泌尿道、上呼吸道,分别占35.67％、30.57％、14.01％;医院感染与患者年龄、住院时间、截瘫程度、手术及侵入性操作有关(P＜0.01).结论 针对引发医院感染的相关因素采取相应的预防和控制对策,加强基础护理,严格无菌操作及手卫生,减少医院感染.     

Incidence of rotavirus diarrhea in children under 6 years referred to the Pediatric Emergency and Clinic of Ghaem Hospital, Mashhad, Iran

Rotavirus is the most important pathogen responsible for acute diarrhea in infants and young children. The incidence of rotavirus infection was studied in 156 children less than six years of age who were suffering from acute gastroenteritis, between February 22, 2006 and February 21, 2007 in Mashhad. Rotavirus antigen was detected by latex agglutination test (Rotascreen) in 28.8% of the stool samples examined. The frequency of rotavirus infection was significantly higher among patients under 24 months of age (69%) than among children two years old or more (31%). The peak of incidence was in the winter. This study revealed that rotavirus is an important etiological agent of acute gastroenteritis among children in Mashhad.     

Epidemiology of rotavirus diarrhea in Egyptian children and implications for disease control.

Reliable epidemiologic data are essential for formulating effective policy to control rotavirus disease through immunization. The objective of this study was to describe the epidemiology of rotavirus diarrhea in a population-based cohort of children under 3 years of age residing in Abu Homos, Egypt, in 1995-1996. Rotavirus diarrhea incidence rates (episodes per person-year) were 0.13 for infants aged <6 months, 0.61 for those aged 6-11 months, 0.17 for those aged 12-23 months, and 0.15 for those aged 24-35 months. Fifty-six percent of children with rotavirus diarrhea had clinical dehydration; 90% of rotavirus diarrheal episodes occurred between July and November. In infants under 1 year of age, receipt of breast milk was associated with a lower incidence of rotavirus diarrhea. No other sociodemographic or environmental factor was found to be significantly associated with rotavirus diarrhea. Of 46 rotavirus isolates with strains identified, 41 (89%) were G serotypes 1 and 2. Rotavirus diarrhea was a major cause of morbidity in this cohort. Promotion of breastfeeding may exert a protective effect in young infants in this setting, but improvements in water and sanitation are unlikely to be effective preventive measures. The use of effective immunization against rotavirus in early infancy should be considered a public health priority.     

The incidence of viral-associated diarrhea after admission to a pediatric hospital

For determination of the incidence of viral-associated diarrhea after admission to a pediatric hospital, all patients admitted to general pediatrics, cardiology, and neurosurgery wards without diarrhea between January 1 and July 31, 1985 were followed 5 days per week for presence of diarrhea, etiologic agent, and possible risk factors. A total of 1,530 patients were followed for 3,642 days. Of these patients, 69 developed 80 nosocomial diarrhea episodes after 72 hours in hospital for a nosocomial diarrhea rate of 4.5 infected children per 100 admissions. Of 358 patients with an infected roommate, 37 (10.3%) developed nosocomial diarrhea. Etiologic agents recognized included rotavirus (43%), calicivirus (16%), astrovirus (14%), minreovirus (12%), adenovirus (8%), Salmonella sp. (4%), and parvo/picornavirus (3%). The nosocomial diarrhea rate by age was: 0-11 months, 8.8%; 12-35 months, 3.6%; and 36 months or more, 0.6%. The rate by length of stay was: 3-7 days, 8.4%; 8-14 days, 10.4%; 15-21 days, 7.9%; and 22 days or more, 8.8%, and by number of roommates/1,000 patient-days it was: 0-1, 15.7; 2 to 3, 27.7; and 4 or more, 45.2. Patients who acquired diarrhea were more likely to be diapered (9.6% vs. 1.8%, p less than 0.001). Playroom use was not significantly different in the two groups. A total of 64 patients developed diarrhea within 72 hours of admission (community diarrhea rate = 4.2). Nosocomial viral-associated diarrhea is almost exclusively a disease of diapered children less than age 36 months and occurs at any time during hospital stay. It is more common in multibed rooms, but does occur in single-bed rooms.     

Hospital-acquired diarrhea in adults: a prospective case-controlled study in Mexico

OBJECTIVE: To know the incidence, etiology, risk factors, morbidity, and mortality of nosocomial diarrhea in adults. DESIGN: Nested case-control study, matched by service, length of stay, date of admission, and presence of leukopenia and/or the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Cases were those who developed nosocomial diarrhea. Controls were those who did not develop nosocomial diarrhea during a comparative period nor during the next ten days. Stool samples were processed in search for parasites, yeasts, bacteria, and rotavirus. SETTING: Third-level referral center, in Mexico City, Mexico, for general internal medicine and surgical problems. PATIENTS: Eligible subjects were all new admissions to the hospital from November 1987 to September 1988. Reasons for exclusion were presence of chronic diarrheal disease or melena. There were 115 cases and 111 controls. RESULTS: Overall risk of acquiring nosocomial diarrhea was 5.5%, or 1.8 episodes per 100 patient-weeks. A potential pathogen was found in 59%. Yeasts and Entamoeba histolytica were the most frequently isolated pathogens. Mortality in cases was 18%, as compared with 5% in controls (p less than .01). Multivariate analysis showed enteral feeding, recent enemas, presence of Candida species, use of antacids/H2-blockers, and presence of nasogastric tubes as significant risk factors for nosocomial diarrhea. CONCLUSIONS: Diarrhea is a common complication in hospitalized patients. It occurs more often than previously suspected and is linked with a substantial mortality. The spectrum of etiologic agents is different from that reported in pediatric hospitals. Given that nosocomial diarrhea may constitute, at least, a marker of severity of illness, it should receive more attention in general hospitals.